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Zf)c It^ural /iDanuais 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



MANUAL OF 
TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 







Ube IRural /iDanuals 








Edited by L. H. BAILEY 








^ 




Manual 


OP 


Gardening — Bailey 




Manual 


OF 


Farm Animals — Harper 




Farm and Garden Rule-Book — Bailey 




Manual 


OF 


Fruit Insects — Slingerland and Crosby 


Manual 


OF 


Weeds — Georgia 




The Pruning-Manual — Bailey 




Manual 


OP 


Fruit Diseases — Hesler and 


Whetzel 


Manual 


OP 


Milk Products — Stocking 




Manual 


OP 


Vegetable-Garden Insects 


— Crosby 


and Leonard 




Manual 


OP 


Tree Diseases — Rankin 




Manual 


OF 


Home-Making — Van Rensselaer, Rose, 


and Canon 




Manual 


OF 


American Grape-Growing - 


— Hedrick 


The Nursery-Manual — Bailey 




Manual 


OP 


Tropical and Subtropical Fruits — 


Popenoe 








Plate I. The Nimlioh avocado. 



MANUAL OF 

TROPICAL AND SUBTEOPICAL 
FRUITS 

EXCLUDING THE BANANA, COCONUT, 

PINEAPPLE, CITRUS FRUITS, 

OLIVE, AND FIG 



BY 
WILSON POPENOE 

AGRICULTURAL EXPLORER, UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1920 

Ml rigfite res^'ved 



yt 



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Copyright, 1920, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1920. 



NortoooU JPkbs 

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



St? -P ,d,^,©CI.A576285 



PREFACE 

My intention in preparing the present work has been to 
bring together, for the guidance of those who Hve in the tropical 
and subtropical regions of the globe, the available information 
concerning the principal fruits cultivated, or which may be 
cultivated, in those regions. The banana, the coconut, the 
pineapple, the citrus fruits, the olive, and the fig are not in- 
cluded, however, since these have been fully treated by other 
writers. Nor have I attempted to describe all of the fruit- 
bearing plants of the tropics : rather has it been my aim to 
concentrate on those which most seem to merit extensive 
cultivation, the culture of many of which is as yet little under- 
stood. No work in the English language has attempted to 
cover this subject, and the few which have appeared in other 
languages do not contain the data concerning propagation 
and cultural practices which would make them useful to horti- 
culturists. Unfortunately, as regards many of the less-known 
fruits, few data are available, but concerning the more im- 
portant ones the researches of such workers as E. Bona via, 
A. C. Hartless, and William Burns in India, H. A. Van Her- 
mann, F. S. Earle, and C. F. Kinman in the West Indies, 
George B. Cellon, Edward Simmonds, W. J. Krome, P. H. 
Rolfs, and Reasoner Brothers in southern Florida, F. Franceschi 
(E. O. Fenzi) and Ira J. Condit in California, J. E. Higgins 
and his associates in Hawaii, P. J. Wester in the Philippines, 
and L. Trabut in the Mediterranean region, have brought to 
light much valuable information. The work of such men as 
G. N. Collins, O. F. Cook, David Fairchild, W. E. Safford, 
and Walter T. Swingle, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 



VI PREFACE 

United States Department of Agriculture, has also added 
materially to our knowledge of the subject. 

References throughout the book indicate the extent of my 
indebtedness to these and other investigators. In order that 
the work may reflect as fully as possible the total knowledge 
at present available on any topic, I have drawn freely from 
all sources, exercising, at the same time, all possible care to 
avoid perpetuating the more than numerous errors with which 
the literature of tropical fruits is burdened. 

For the past seven years, during a large part of which time 
I have traveled as Agricultural Explorer for the United States 
Department of Agriculture, I have had exceptional oppor- 
tunities for gathering, at first hand, information for this work. 
In the course of my journeys I have visited Hawaii, Japan, the 
Philippines, the Straits Settlements, India, Arabia, North 
Africa, Mexico, Guatemala, the West Indies, and Brazil. 
This field work has alternated with and been supplemented 
by practical experience with the cultural problems of tropical 
and subtropical fruit-growing in California and Florida. To 
those familiar with the thorough and exhaustive treatises 
which have been published on the northern fruits, however, 
the present work will no doubt appear superficial in character. 
Necessarily it is so. Present knowledge of the greater number 
of tropical fruits is superficial, and many years must pass be- 
fore it will be possible for a thoroughly comprehensive treatise 
to be offered on any one of the species here considered, except- 
ing possibly the date. 

I have been assisted and encouraged in the preparation of 
this work by many persons. It is a particular pleasure to 
acknowledge my indebtedness to Charles Fuller Baker, now 
Dean of the College of Agriculture, University of the Philip- 
pines, under whose guidance I first took up M'^ork in tropical 
pomology, and whose boundless enthusiasm for tropical plants 
has been a constant inspiration to me; to F. Franceschi, 



PREFACE vii 

formerly of Santa Barbara, California, who was one of the 
pioneers in the introduction and cultivation of tropical fruits 
in California ; and above all, to my present chief, David Fair- 
child, and my colleagues in the Office of Foreign Seed and 
Plant Introduction of the Bureau of Plant Industry. To Dr. 
Fairchild America is indebted for many choice varieties of 
the mango, the date, and other tropical fruits which are now 
cultivated in the United States, and for his assistance and 
encouragement in my own investigations I owe him a debt of 
gratitude which I can never pay. 

W. J. Krome of Homestead, Florida, has criticized the 
chapters on the avocado and mango, and added many notes 
of interest and value to the former. W. E. Safford of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry has revised the chapter on the an- 
nonaceous fruits, and Henry Pittier of the same Bureau that 
on the sapotaceous fruits. To my brother, Paul Popenoe, 
I am indebted for most of the chapter on the date. H. H. 
Hume of Florida has criticized the chapter on the kaki. J. N. 
Rose of the United States National Museum has furnished most 
of the data on the tuna and pitaya. Sidney F. Blake of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry has been of much assistance on 
matters of botanical nomenclature. J. Smeaton Chase of 
Palm Springs, California, has rendered valuable aid in the 
preparation of the manuscript. To all of these men I express 
my sincere appreciation of their help. 

The line drawings with which this work is illustrated have 
been made by Mrs. R. E. Gamble of the Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry. Nearly all of them, as well as most of the half-tone 
plates, are from my own photographs ; a few are from photo- 
graphs by P. H. Dorsett of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Wilson Popenoe 

Washington, DC, 

October 1, 1919. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

The Outlook for Tropical Fruit .... 4 1-8 

CHAPTER II 

The Avocado 9-78 

Botanical description 11-14 

History and distribution 14- 20 

Composition and uses of the fruit .... 20- 23 

Climate and soil 23- 30 

Cultivation 30-40 

Tillage, mulching and cover-crops .... 32- 33 

Fertnizer 33-36 

Irrigation ........ 36- 38 

Pruning . . 38- 40 

Propagation 40- 52 

Stock plants 41- 43 

Essential features of bud propagation . . . 43- 44 

Budding 44-49 

Grafting 49-50 

Top-working old trees ...... 50- 52 

The crop . . . 52-54 

Season .......... 54- 56 

Picking, packing, and marketing ..... 56- 58 

Pests and diseases ....... 58- 65 

Races and varieties ....... 65- 78 

West Indian race ....... 69- 71 

Guatemalan race . . . . . . .71-76 

Mexican race ........ 76- 78 

Hybrids 78 

CHAPTER III 

The Mango 79-145 

Botanical description ....... 81- 84 

History and distribution 84- 92 

ix 



X TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Composition and uses of the fruit .... 92- 95 

Climate and soil ........ 95-100 

Cultivation 101-107 

Propagation ......... 107-118 

The mango flower and its pollination .... 118-122 

The crop 122-128 

Pests and diseases ....... 128-132 

Races and varieties ....... 132-145 

Mulgoba group . . . . . . . 138-140 

Alphonse group ....... 140-143 

Sandersha group ....... 143-144 

Cambodiana group ...... 144—145 

CHAPTER IV 

Relatives of the Mango 146-160 

The cashew 146-152 

Theimbu 152-154 

The ambarella ........ 155-157 

The red mombin ........ 157-159 

The yellow mombin ,, . . . . . . 159-160 

CHAPTER V 

The Annonaceous Fruits ...... 161-195 

The cherimoya ........ 161-177 

Cultivation 169-171 

Propagation 171-174 

The crop 174-175 

Pests and diseases . . . . . . . 175 

Varieties 175-177 

The sugar-apple 177-182 

Thesoursop 182-186 

The buUock's-heart 186-188 

Theilama 188-191 

Minor annonaceous fruits ...... 191-195 

Pond-apple 191-192 

Wild cherimoya ....... 192 

Mountain soursop ....... 192-193 

Soncoya ........ 193 

Posh-te 193-194 

Biriba 194-195 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



XI 



CHAPTER VI 

PAGES 

The Date 196-224 

Cultivation 202-207 

Propagation . . . . . . . . . 207-211 

Yield and season ........ 212-213 

Picking and packing . 213-216 

Pests and diseases ....... 216-218 

Varieties and classification 218-224 

CHAPTER VII 

The Papaya and Its Relatives 225-249 

The papaya 225-240 

Cultivation ........ 230-233 

Propagation ........ 233-237 

Yield and market ....... 237-238 

Pests and diseases ....... 238-239 

Seedling races . 239-240 

The mountain papaya ....... 240-241 

The purple granadilla ....... 241-245 

The sweet granadilla . 245-246 

The giant granadilla 247-249 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Loqxjat and Its Relatives 250-271 

Theloquat 250-267 

Cultivation 256-259 

Propagation 259-261 

Yield and picking . . . . . . . 261-262 

Pests and diseases . . . . . . . 262-264 

Varieties 264-267 

Thecapulin 268-269 

The manzanUla . 269-271 

The ieaco 271 

CHAPTER IX 



Fruits op the Myrtle Family 
The guava .... 
The strawberry guava . 
Other guavas 

Costa Rican guava 



272-311 

272-279 

279-283 

283-286 

283 



XU TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Guisaro 284 

Brazilian guava 284-285 

Para guava 285-286 

The pitanga 286-292 

Thefeijoa 292-299 

The jabotieaba 299-302 

Other mjTtaceous fruits 302-311 

Grumichama 302-304 

Jambolan . 304-305 

Rose-apple 305-306 

Pera do eampo • . . 307 

Pitomba 307-308 

Ohia 308-309 

Uvalha 309-310 

CabeUuda 310 

Guabiroba 310-311 

Downy myrtle 311 

CHAPTER X 

The Litchi and Its Relatives 312-333 

The litchi 312-325 

Cultivation 317-321 

Propagation 321-323 

Yield and season 323-324 

Pests and diseases 324-325 

Varieties 325 

The longan 325-327 

Therambutan 327-329 

The pulasan 329-330 

The akee 330-332 

The mamoncillo . . 332-333 

CHAPTER XI 

The Sapotaceotts Fetjits 334-352 

The sapodilla 334-340 

The sapote 340-343 

The green sapote . . . . . . . . 343-344 

The star-apple 344^347 

The canistel 347-349 

The abiu 349-350 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XIU 

PAGES 

The yellow sapote 350-351 

The lucmo 351-352 

CHAPTER XII 

The Kaki and Its Relatives ...... 353-374 

The kaki or Japanese persimmon ..... 353-370 

Cultivation . 357-359 

Propagation 359-363 

Picking and shipping 363-365 

Pests and diseases 365-366 

Varieties 366-370 

The black sapote 370-373 

Themabolo 373-374 

CHAPTER XIII 

The Pomegranate and the Jujube .... 375-389 

The pomegranate 375-383 

The jujube 383-389 

CHAPTER XIV 

The Mangosteen and Its Relatives .... 390-405 

The mangosteen 390-401 

Cultivation 394-397 

Propagation 398-400 

Season and enemies of the mangosteen . . . 400-401 

The mamey 401-403 

The bakuri 403^04 

The bakupari 405 

CHAPTER XV 

The Breadfruit and Its Relatives .... 406-^20 

The breadfruit 406-414 

The jackfruit 414-419 

The marang . 420 

CHAPTER XVI 

Miscellaneous Fruits 421-455 

The durian 421-425 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGES 

The santol . . . ... , . . 426 

The langsat . 426-428 

The carambola 429-431 

The bilimbi . . 431-432 

The tamarind 432-436 

The carissa 436-439 

The ramontchi ^ 439-441 

The umkokolo . . . . . . , . 441-443 

The ketembilla ........ 443-445 

The white sapote 445-448 

The tuna 44g_450 

The pitaya . . 451-452 

The tree-tomato . 452-453 

The genipa . 454-455 

Bibliography ......... 455-457 

Index 459-474 



PLATES 



I. 
II. 



III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 
XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 



The Nimlioh avocado ..... Frontispiece 

Four or five tortillas (corn cakes) and a good-sized 
avocado are considered a good meal by the Guatemala 

Indians ......... 24 

Avocado-growing in the Mexican highlands ... 46 
Puebla avocado tree producing its first crop at two years 

of age ; the Fuerte avocado ..... 68 

Inflorescence of the Alphonse mango ; a Cuban mango- 
vender ......... 90 

The Sandersha mango ; the ambarella . . . .110 

Red mombins on the tree . . . . . .132 

The cherimoya at its best ; the soursop and other fruits 150 
The home of the Fardh date ; in the date gardens of 

Basrah ......... 176 

A date palm in full production ; the purple granadiUa 190 
A tropical substitute for the cantaloupe, the papaya ; a 

papaya in bearing ....... 208 

A plate of fine loquats ....... 230 

The wild cherry of Central America {Prunus salicifoUa) ; 

the manzanilla {Cratcegus stipulosa) .... 250 

Feijoas ready for gathering ...... 280 

A fruiting jaboticaba tree ...... 292 

Flowers and fruits of the rose-apple (Eugenia Jambos) 306 

The litchi, favorite fruit of the Chinese . . . 324 

Foliage and fruits of the akee (Blighia sapida) . . 350 

The sapodilla (Achras Sapota) ..... 370 

The rambutan and other fruits ; a basket of green 

sapotes ......... 386 

A young kaki tree in bearing ..... 400 

A basket of pomegranates ; the black sapote . . . 420 
The jackfruit (Artocarpus integrifolia) , the largest 

tropical fruit ........ 438 

The mangosteen ; the durian 456 

XV 



MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND 
SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

CHAPTER I 
THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS 

The thickly peopled countries of the Temperate Zone 
must look more and more to the tropics to supplement their 
own food resources, whether by direct supplies, made possible 
in increasing measure bj^ ever-improving means of trans- 
portation, or by furnishing plants which may be cultivated in 
mild-wintered regions such as California and Florida. Both 
forms of contribution will be largely in the item of fruits. As 
examples of the first class, the banana, because of its immense 
yield and quick production, has already been exploited on a 
large scale, and the coconut, through its product copra, has 
become an economic factor of prime importance; in the 
second (or rather, in both) the avocado, still a novelty but of 
very great possibilities as adaptable to growth in our own 
country, is on the verge of taking a high place among the food 
crops contributed by the tropics. 

Many other fruits of the Torrid Zone, not all of them so 
important, yet all valuable in degree in the dietary of the race, 
must be grown in ever-increasing quantities, not only to supply 
northern markets, but also, — and even more important, — 
to enable the native populations of the tropics as well as settlers 
from the North to obtain abundantly and cheaply this most 
wholesome source of human energy. 

B 1 



2 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

For, strange as it may seem to many who have never Hved 
or traveled in the hot belts of the earth, those lands come far 
short of conforming to that conventional idea of the tropics, as 
regions where luscious fruits grow wild upon every tree and the 
languorous native has only to stretch forth his hand to obtain 
his dinner. It is a well-attested fact that the inhabitants of 
many tropical countries suffer for want of sufficient fresh 
fruit ; and it is also true that much real starvation in densely 
populated hot regions, India for example, could be averted by 
planting on a wholesale scale fruit-trees such as the avocado, 
whose product has a relatively high food value. 

The reason for this scarcity of fruits in precisely those 
regions where, by climatic indications, one would expect them 
to be most abundant, is not to be found in any single fact, 
but is, perhaps, largely the result of three causes : first, the 
enervating effect of heat, which discourages man from under- 
taking work which can be avoided; second, the one-sided 
exploitation of many tropical regions for the production of 
materials such as rubber and cotton, without sufficient regard 
to supplying wholesome foodstuffs for those who labor in 
producing these articles ; and third, the long time required by 
tree-fruits to yield returns, as compared with the annual crops 
such as corn, beans, and squashes. This last factor is par- 
ticularly disastrous where primitive races of people are con- 
cerned, for such almost invariably devote their attention in the 
main to crops which give quick returns, — the very crops which 
must depend absolutely on the season's rainfall. 

It is, indeed, only as scattered, often neglected, specimens 
in dooryards and around cultivated fields that many of the 
tropical fruit-trees exist. Others, such as the mango and the 
breadfruit, are given more attention, yet they rarely receive 
more than a fraction of the solicitous care which northerners 
lavish on their apples, peaches, and pears. 

With the exception of a few species, such as the banana 



THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS 3 

and the coconut, the tropical fruits have received scientific 
attention only when their culture has been brought northward 
to the extreme limit of their zone, as, in the case of certain of 
them, it has been in California and Florida. Even here their 
study and improvement have only been undertaken in very 
recent years ; many species, in fact, are still in the condition of 
wild plants, so that it is no wonder their fruits are sometimes 
looked on by northern horticulturists as almost without value. 
The case is well put by Hartwig, who writes, in his work " The 
Tropical World": 

"It may easily be imagined that the tropical sun, which 
distills so many costly juices and fiery spices in indescribable 
multiplicity and abundance, must also produce a variety of 
fruits. But man has yet done little to improve by care and art 
these gifts of Nature, and, with rare exceptions, the delicious 
flavor for which our native fruits are indebted to centuries of 
cultivation, is found wanting in those of the torrid zone. In 
our gardens Pomona appears in the refined garb of civilization, 
while in the tropics she still shows herself as a savage beauty, 
requiring the aid of culture for the full development of her 
attractions." 

The exceptions to this condition, however, are notable, and 
scarcely so rare as Hartwig and others have believed. The 
mango, in its finer Indian varieties, offers an example of im- 
provement through selection and vegetative propagation which 
equals that of the peach, if indeed the advance from wild to 
cultivated forms has not been greater in the former than in the 
latter fruit. Those who have tasted the luscious Pairi mango 
of Bombay, or the Mulgoba as now grown in Florida, will 
recognize the probable accuracy of this statement. 

Many other tropical fruits might be mentioned which 
compare favorably with the best products of high cultivation in 
the Temperate Zone. Who, that has had the opportunity of 
judging, has not felt, as he lifted the snowy segments of the 



4 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

mangosteen from their cup of royal purple, that here was a 
fruit not excelled by any other in the world ? The cherimoya 
of tropical America leaves little to be desired, while the litchi 
is preferred in China, not without reason, to the finest orange or 
peach. American residents in Hawaii consider the papaya 
the most delicious of breakfast-fruits, surpassing in their esti- 
mation the cantaloupe or muskmelon. To the Japanese taste 
there is no better fruit than the kaki, while to the Arab the date 
is the quintessence of richness and flavor. 

The ignorance, or tardiness of adoption, of the art of graft- 
ing has, in many tropical countries, prevented the development 
of superior fruits. The superb apples and pears of the Tem- 
perate Zone, and the splendid mangos of India, could not be 
grown without grafting, since improved varieties of nearly all 
tree-fruits tend to revert to the wild type when propagated by 
seed. The finest fruits are, in fact, artificial productions which 
can only be maintained by artificial means; under free com- 
petition of natural selection they would disappear. 

Because of this rare occurrence, among tropical fruits, of 
fine horticultural varieties as compared with the profusion of 
semi-wild seedlings, much criticism has been ignorantly directed 
at these fruits in general. C. F. Baker, who has done much 
to advance the science of tropical pomology, graphically states 
the case as follows : 

"On hearing some aspersions cast upon the caimite (Chryso- 
phyllum Cainito), a valuable and delicious fruit at its best, a 
Cuban was heard to remark, ' There are caimites, and there are 
caimites ! ' A similar remark might be made of most tropical 
fruits. The methods of seed selection, of breeding, and of 
vegetative propagation have rarely been brought to bear on 
any of these things. As for systematic search for the better 
forms now existing, and the rapid building up of really com- 
prehensive experimental plantations of them in the tropical 
botanic gardens and experiment stations, we have yet a field of 



THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS 5 

highly useful, most remunerative, and intensely interesting 
work before us." 

It is to this field that attention must be devoted, if the agri- 
cultural development of the tropics is not to become even more 
one-sided than it is to-day. British horticulturists in India and 
Ceylon, French in the Oceanic colonies, and American in the 
subtropical parts of California and Florida, as well as in the 
West Indies, Hawaii, and the Philippines, have done notable 
work during the past quarter of a century; yet when their 
achievements are considered alongside the possibilities, it is 
evident that hardly has a beginning been made with this 
promising field. 

" Botanicus verus," said the great Linnaeus, " desudahit in 
augendo amahilem scientiam," — "The true botanist will sweat 
in advancing his beloved science." Even so must the inves- 
tigator who undertakes to further the progress of tropical 
pomology expect to find hard work, at times under trying 
climatic conditions, — to sweat indeed, — unless his lot is 
cast in the delightful climate of the tropical highlands, or in 
subtropical regions such as California and Florida. But the 
subject is one which offers such a wealth of fascinating problems 
and gives promise of such valuable results, that for a long 
time to come it can hardly fail to attract the needful few among 
the many whose tastes incline them toward pomological pur- 
suits. 

It is indeed fortunate for our country that its boundaries 
include areas where certain of the most valuable tropical fruits 
can be cultivated. Of these areas, the warmer parts of Florida 
and California seem destined, by reason of their favorable 
situation with respect to the great centers of our population, 
to take the lead in the production of such fruits for supplying 
the northern markets. The advantageous climate of these 
states as regards living and working conditions, as compared 
with the tropics, makes it probable also that they will be the 



6 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

field of more activity along lines of horticultural investigation 
than will the strictly tropical countries where the fruits are 
native. Of course, it is not possible to cultivate within the 
boundaries of the continental United States all of the fruits 
discussed in this work. Many of them are uncompromisingly 
tropical in character and refuse to accommodate themselves to 
regions where the temperature ever falls as low as the freezing 
point. It is a noteworthy and hopeful circumstance, however, 
that certain of the tropical fruits attain their greatest per- 
fection when grown at the extreme northern or southern limit 
of their zone, when pushed, so to speak, right up against the 
frost-line. For example, the citrus fruits have been brought 
in California and Florida to a higher degree of excellence than 
has been reached by them in strictly tropical regions. 

It has been thought in the past that it might be possible, by 
means of a process of acclimatization, to adapt even the more 
tender species of tropical plants to conditions in California and 
Florida, and ultimately to cultivate them on a commercial 
scale in those states. In the light of present knowledge, how- 
ever, it seems probable that ability to withstand frost is not 
greatly increased by submitting a plant to lower temperatures 
than those to which it has been accustomed, even when this 
is carried through several consecutive generations, and the 
chances of acclimatizing in California such fruits as the strictly 
tropical annonas are not great. 

Many of the tropical fruits have as yet scarcely been brought 
under cultivation, and systematic cultivation of the more 
important ones, such as the avocado and mango, is of such 
recent origin that cultural practices have not yet become 
standardized. New developments are constantly taking place. 
It is, therefore, inevitable that many of the practices herein 
described will be obsolete a few years hence. 

Regarding the use of the terms tropical and subtropical a 
few words of explanation are necessary. Plants which will 



THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS 7 

not grow where the temperature falls much below 40° (where 
temperatures are mentioned in this work, they refer to the 
Fahrenheit scale) are here termed strictly tropical ; by tropical 
plants are meant (following P. H. Rolfs) those of the zone in 
which the coconut can be grown; and by subtropical plants, 
those of the zone of the orange. The next region, in point of 
minimum temperatures, should be termed the semi-tropical, 
but this term is frequently confused with subtropical and had 
better be avoided by stretching the use of the word subtropical 
to cover the region in which the loquat, the pomegranate, and 
the date can be grown. It must be borne in mind, however, 
that knowledge regarding the frost-resistance of plants is still 
meager. Because a certain species has safely passed through a 
temperature of 25° above zero in a particular instance in 
California, it need not follow that the plant will withstand the 
same temperature in another region, nor even that the same 
individual specimen in California would withstand again 25° 
if in different physiological condition. 

With a few exceptions, the common names for the fruits are 
those recommended by the American Pomological Society 
(Proceedings 1917). The pomological nomenclature (names of 
fruit varieties) also follows, so far as is possible, the Code of 
Nomenclature of that Society. In spelling names which have 
come into the English from the Arabic or some other oriental 
alphabet, the system has been followed elaborated by the Inter- 
national Congress of Orientalists at Geneva in 1894, and now 
generally adopted by those having to do with the transliteration 
of oriental names ; which is, that vowels should take the value 
they possess in Spanish and other Latin languages, and con- 
sonants the value they possess in English. The names in this 
work most affected by the application of this principle are those 
of varieties of the mango, date, and pomegranate, and the 
common names of a few minor fruits. Current spellings rejected 
as incorrect are given in the synonymy of varieties. 



8 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The botanical nomenclature is intended to conform to the 
International Rules, better known as the Vienna Rules. These 
are the ones followed by European, as well as many American, 
botanists. In the botanical synonymy all names are included 
which commonly appear in the publications of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, when they differ from those 
adopted under the Vienna Rules. 



CHAPTER II 

THE AVOCADO 

Plates I-IV 

North American horticulturists are accustomed to view the 
avocado as one of the greatest undeveloped sources of food 
which the tropics offer at the present day. From their stand- 
point they are correct, but the inhabitants of Mexico and 
Central America would consider it more logical to assert that 
the Irish potato is a new crop deserving of extensive cultivation. 
North Americans view the avocado as a possibility, but to the 
aboriginal inhabitants of tropical America it is a realized 
possibility. 

"Four or five tortillas [corn cakes], an avocado, and a cup of 
coffee, — this is a good meal, " say the Indians of Guatemala. 

It is precisely this condition, — the importance of the 
avocado as a food in those parts of tropical America where it 
has been grown since immemorial times, — that has led students 
of this fruit in the United States to predict that avocado culture 
will some day become more important than citrus culture in 
California and Florida. 

To a certain extent, the avocado takes the place of meat in the 
dietary of the Central Americans. It is appetizing, it is 
nourishing, it is cheap, and it is available throughout most 
of the year. When these last two conditions have been re- 
produced in the United States, will not the avocado become a 
staple article of diet with millions of people? 

There is every reason to believe that eventually the avocado 
will be as familiar to American housewives as the banana is 

9 



10 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

to-day. The increasing scarcity of meat, and the fact that an 
acre of land will yield a larger amount of food when planted to 
avocados than it will in any other tree crop known at present, 
assures the future importance of the avocado industry in this 
country. 

Horticulturally speaking, the avocado is a new fruit. In 
Central America it has been grown mainly as a dooryard 
tree, and no care has been given to its propagation or culture. 
During the last fifteen years the horticulturists of California 
and Florida have devoted systematic attention to vegetative 
propagation, to cultural methods, and to the development of 
superior varieties. In these two states the avocado has been 
regarded as a fruit of great commercial possibilities. Cuba, 
Porto Rico, and several other countries are also giving serious 
consideration to commercial avocado culture. 

During summer and autumn the avocado is regularly offered 
in the markets of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, . and other 
large cities. Many persons who ten years ago Were not even 
familiar with its name have now learned to appreciate the 
merits of this unique fruit. However, production is not yet 
great enough to place the avocado in the position which ulti- 
mately it must occupy, —7 that of a staple foodstuff, rather than 
a luxury or a salad-fruit. 

The avocado orchards of California, Florida, Cuba, and 
Porto Rico now have a total area approaching one thousand 
acres. As with every young horticultural industry, the 
problems of propagation, culture, and marketing have been 
numerous, and many of them remain to be solved. The 
avocado growers of California have formed a cooperative 
organization for the purpose of attacking these problems more 
efficiently. Especially important is the question of varieties, 
which must, in many cases, be settled individually for each 
locality. Experience of the last fifteen years has brought to 
light many of the fundamental requirements of the avocado 



THE AVOCADO 11 

tree and has suggested cultural practices and methods which 
are producing satisfactory results. In addition, problems of 
budding and grafting have been mastered, and these means of 
propagation are practiced successfully by nurserymen, with the 
result that trees of the best varieties are obtainable in quantities 
which permit of extensive commercial plantings. A large 
number of varieties is being tested, and experience in handling 
and marketing the fruit is being gained rapidly. 

Botanical Description 

The genus Per sea, to which the avocado belongs, is a member 
of the laurel family (Lauracese) ; hence it is related to the 
cinnamon tree, camphor, and sassafras. The avocados cul- 
tivated in the United States usually have been considered 
to represent a single species, Persea americana, but careful 
study shows that they are derived from two species, as 
follows : 

P. americana, Mill. (P. gratissima, Gaertn.). All of the 
varieties classified horticulturally as belonging to the West 
Indian and Guatemalan races are of this species. It is the 
common avocado of the tropical American lowlands, and the 
one which has been most widely disseminated throughout the 
tropics. 

P. drymifolia, Cham. & Schlecht. (P. americana var. drymi- 
folia, Mez). This includes the small avocados of the Mexican 
highlands, now grown in California, Chile, and to a very limited 
extent in southern France, Italy, and Algeria. Horticulturists 
in the United States use the term "Mexican race" to indicate 
avocados of this species. 

In addition to these two species, a third is well known in 
southern Mexico and Guatemala, and has recently been intro- 
duced into the United States. This is the coyo or chinini, P. 
Schiedeana, Nees. The yas of Costa Rica (probably P. Pittieri, 



12 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Mez) is another species which is likely, when known in this 
country, to be classed popularly as an avocado. 

The two species from which the cultivated avocados are 
derived are closely alike in many respects. It is easy to dis- 
tinguish them by the smell of the crushed leaves; those of 
P. drymifolia possess an aromatic odor, resembling that of 
anise or sassafras, which those of P. americana entirely lack. 
The flowers of P. drymifolia are typically more pubescent, and 
the under surfaces of the leaves more glaucous, than those of 
P. americana. The fruits also are distinct, having a thin, 
almost membranous skin in the former species, and a thick 
leathery or brittle skin in the latter. The horticultural 
differences are of more interest here than the botanical ; they 
will be referred to later, in the discussion of the horticultural 
races. 

Seedling avocados of both species vary in habit of growth, 
being sometimes short and spreading, but more commonly erect, 
even slender. On shallow soils they may not reach more 
than 30 feet in height, while on deep moist clay-loams they 
sometimes reach 60 feet. Budded trees are usually more 
compact in habit than seedlings, and probably will not attain 
such great ultimate dimensions. 

While the avocado is classed as an evergreen, trees of some 
varieties cast their foliage at the time of flowering, the new 
leaves making their appearance almost immediately. The 
leaf-blades are multiform, some of the commonest shapes being 
lanceolate, elliptic-lanceolate, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, oval, 
ovate, and obovate. The apex differs from almost blunt to 
acuminate, while the base is usually acute or truncate. The 
length of the blades ranges between 3 or 4 inches and as much 
as 16 inches. P. drymifolia usually has smaller leaves than 
P. americana, both species exhibiting a wide diversity in leaf 
form. 

In the United States the flowers appear from November to 



THE AVOCADO 



13 



May, according to locality and variety. Occasionally some of 
the Mexican avocados (P. drymifolia) bloom in November, 
while the Guatemalan varieties (P. americana) may not begin 
flowering until March or April. The flowers (Fig. 1) are pro- 
duced in racemes near the ends of the branches, and are fur- 
nished with both stamens and pistils, all of them being inherently 
capable of developing into fruits. From their immense number, 
however, it is easy to see that only a minute percentage can 
actually do so. They are small and pale green or yellowish 
green in color. At first glance they appear 
to have six lanceolate or ovate petals, but 
on closer examination these are seen to be 
perianth-lobes; the usual differentiation 
into two whorls or series, calyx and corolla, 
does not occur in the avocado. The 
perianth-lobes are of nearly equal length 
in most varieties, the inner three occasion- 
ally being longer than the outer ; they are 
more or less pubescent, heavily so in P. 
drymifolia, sometimes almost glabrous in P. 
americana. The nine stamens are arranged 
in three series; the anthers are 4-celled, 
the cells opening by small valves hinged at 
the upper end. At the base of each stamen 
of the inner series are two large orange-colored glands which 
secrete nectar, presumably for the attraction of insects. Inside 
the stamens are three staminodes or vestigial stamens. The 
ovary is 1-celled, and contains a single ovule; the style is 
slender, usually hairy, with a simple stigma. 

The fruit is exceedingly variable in both species. The 
smallest fruits of P. drymifolia are no larger than plums, while 
the largest of P. americana weigh more than three pounds. The 
form in both species is commonly pear-shaped, oval, or obo- 
void, but ranges from round and oblate at one extreme to long 




Fig. 1. Flowers of 
Fuerte avocado. (X|) 



14 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

and slender, almost the shape of a cucumber, at the other. 
The color varies from yellow-green or almost yellow through 
many shades of green to crimson, maroon, brown, purple, and 
almost black. The skin is as thin as that of an apple in many 
varieties of P. drymifolia; in P. americana it is occasionally a 
quarter of an inch thick, and hard and woody in texture. The 
fleshy edible part which lies between the skin and the seed is of 
buttery consistency, yellow or greenish yellow in color, of a 
peculiarly rich nutty flavor in the best varieties, and contains a 
high percentage of oil. The flesh is traversed from the stem 
to the base of the seed by streaks or fine fibers (invisible in the 
ripe fruit of many varieties) which represent the vascular 
system. The single large seed is oblate, spherical, conical, or 
slender, inverted so that the young shoot develops from the 
end which lies toward the stem of the fruit. It is covered by 
two seed-coats, varying in thickness, often adhering closely to 
one another. The cotyledons are normally two, occasionally 
three in P. drymifolia, white or greenish white in color, smooth 
or roughened on the surface. 

History and Distribution 

The native home of the avocado is on the mainland of tropical 
America. Per sea drymifolia is abundant in the wild state on 
the lower slopes of the volcano Orizaba, in southern Mexico, 
as well as in other parts of that country. The extent of its 
distribution is not precisely known. The native home of P. 
americana has not been determined with certainty, since the 
tree has been so long in cultivation and few efforts have as 
yet been made to locate the region in which it is truly in- 
digenous. 

Jacques Huber, in the Boletim do Museu Goeldi, says : 
"Everything indicates that the avocado, originally indigenous 
to Mexico, has been cultivated since immemorial times, and 



THE AVOCADO 15 

that it very early spread through Central America to Peru; 
then into the Antilles, where its introduction is mentioned by 
Jacquin ; and much later into Brazil." He also remarks that 
its presence in Peru in pre-Colombian days is indicated by the 
indigenous name, palta, and the finding of fruits in the graves 
of the Incas. W. E. Safford, however, says that no vestiges 
of the avocado are found in the prehistoric graves of the Peru- 
vian coast, nor is it represented in the casts of fruits and vege- 
tables discovered among the terra cotta funeral vases so abun- 
dant in the vicinity of Trujillo and Chimbote. 

While it is probable that the avocado is of relatively recent 
introduction into Brazil, and that its presence in Peru in pre- 
Colombian days may be open to question, the existence of 
native names for it in many different languages, as well as 
references by the early voyagers, indicate that at the time of the 
Discovery it was cultivated, if not indigenous, in extreme 
northern South America and from there through Central 
America into Mexico. 

The first written account of the avocado, so far as known, 
is contained in the report of Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo 
(1526), who saw the tree in Colombia, near the Isthmus of 
Panama. 

Pedro de Cieza de Leon, who traveled in tropical America 
between 1532 and 1550, mentions the avocado as one of the 
fruits used by the Spaniards who had settled in the Isthmus of 
Panama, and as being an article of food among the natives of 
Arma and Cali, in Colombia. 

Francisco Cervantes Salazar, one of the earliest chroniclers 
of Mexico, gives evidence that the avocado was well known in 
the markets of Mexico City as early as 1554, which was very 
soon after the Conquest. In a later work, the "Cronica de 
Nueva Espafia, " written about the year 1575, he described the 
fruit. Both in this work and in his earlier one, "Mexico en 
1554," he uses the name aguacate. 



16 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Sahagun, another early chronicler of Mexico, who wrote some 
time previous to 1569, briefly describes the Mexican avocado 
{Persea drymifolia) under the Aztec name, which he spelled aoacatl. 

Acosta, writing in 1590, distinguished clearly between the 
Mexican form and that grown in Peru. He used the Peruvian 
name palta," in place of the Mexican ahuacatl or any of its 
corruptions. 

Garcilasso de la Vega, writing in 1605, states that the name 
palta was applied to this fruit by the Incas, who brought the 
tree from the province of Palta to the valley of Cuzco. 

One of the most valuable accounts written in the early 
days is that of Hernandez, as edited and published by the 
friar Francisco Ximenez in 1615. Hernandez, who was a 
physician sent by the King of Spain to study the medicinal 
plants of Mexico, was evidently familiar only with the Mexican 
avocado (P. drymifolia) ; at least, if he had seen the lowland 
species he makes no mention of it. 

Another excellent account was written in 1653 by Bernabe 
Cobo, a priest who had traveled widely in tropical America. 
He was the first, so far as known, to mention the Guatemalan 
avocados. After describing at some length the West Indian 
race, as it is now called, mentioning in particular the varieties 
grown in Yucatan and those of certain sections of Peru, he says : 

"There are three distinct kinds of paltas. The second 
kind is a large, round one which is produced in the province of 
Guatemala, and which does not have as smooth a skin as the 
first. The third is a small palta which is found in Mexico 
which in size, color and form resembles a Breva fig ; some are 
round and others elongate, and the skin is as thin and smooth 
as that of a plum." 

Thus it is seen that the three groups of cultivated avocados, 
recognized at the present day by horticulturists under the names 
of West Indian, Guatemalan, and Mexican, were distinguished 
as early as 1653 by Padre Cobo. 



THE AVOCADO 17 

Hughes, in his important work "The American Physician" 
pubHshed in 1672, devotes a short chapter to "The Spanish 
Pear." His reference to its having been planted in Jamaica 
by the Spaniards is in agreement with other accounts, all of 
which indicate that the avocado was not cultivated in the West 
Indies previous to the Discovery. 

Sir Hans Sloane, in his catalog of the plants of Jamaica, 
published in 1696, briefly describes the avocado, cites numerous 
works in which it is mentioned, and gives as its common name 
"The avocado or alligator pear-tree." This is the first time 
that either of these names appears in print, so far as has been 
discovered. 

It is useless to enter into a discussion of all the common 
names which have appeared in the literature of this fruit. 
G. N. Collins ^ lists forty-three, but many of them are of 
limited use, and others are the clumsy efforts of early writers 
to spell the names they had heard. 

The correct name of this fruit in English is at present recog- 
nized to be avocado. This is undoubtedly a corruption of the 
Spanish ahuacate or aguacate, which in turn is an adaptation of 
the Aztec ahuacatl. The Spaniards, who probably introduced 
the avocado into Jamaica, brought with it the Mexican name. 
When Jamaica was taken by the British this name began to 
undergo a process of corruption, during which such forms as 
albecata, avigato, and amcato were developed. Frequently 
the term "pear" was added to these, in conformity with the 
tendency of the early English colonists to apply familiar names 
to the fruits which they found in America. We have many 
other evidences of this tendency, e.g., star-apple, custard- 
apple, hog-plum, Spanish-plum. 

The name avocado or avocado-pear was one of the numerous 
corruptions which found its way into print, first appearing, 
so far as known, in 1696 (see above). For some reason it has 

1 BuU. 77, Bureau of Plant Industry. 
c 



18 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

outlived many other corruptions. Since it is reasonably eupho- 
nious, well adapted to the English language, and widely used, 
it has been officially adopted by the California Avocado Asso- 
ciation and is used in the publications of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, as well as by horticultural societies and 
horticulturists generally. The name alligator-pear, which seems 
to have appeared in the same way and about the same time as . 
the term avocado, is considered decidedly objectionable, and a 
vigorous effort is being made to eliminate it from popular usage. 
Ahuacate (more commonly but less correctly spelled aguacate) 
is the name at present used in Mexico, Central America as far 
south as Costa Rica, and the Spanish-speak- 
ing islands of the West Indies, as well as in a 
few other parts of the world. The original 
form ahuacatl is still employed in those sec- 
tions of Mexico where the Aztec or Mexican 
language has not been replaced by Spanish. 
The avocado tree is ahuacaquahuitl, a com- 
bination of ahuacatl and quahuitl (tree). 
There were at least two towns in ancient '^ 
Mexico named Ahuacatlan. This word was 
expressed in the picture writing of the Aztecs 
by means of the sign of the avocado tree and 
the locative suffix -tlan, indicated by teeth set in the trunk of 
the tree (Fig. 2). The picture thus read ahuacatlan, or "place 
where the ahuacate abounds." The word ahuacatl has two 
meanings; one, the fruit of the avocado tree, and the other, 
testicle. 

The name pahua (from the Aztec pauatl, fruit) is applied 
in certain parts of Mexico to avocados of the Guatemalan and 
West Indian races, distinguishing them from the thinner 
skinned and smaller ahuacates of the Mexican race. 

In southern Costa Rica the common name is cura, while in 
the western part of South America the Peruvian name palta is 




Fig. 2. Sign of 
the avocado tree 
used by the Aztecs. 



THE AVOCADO 19 

current. The latter occurs in the Quichua language, and is of 
unknown derivation. 

The names current in various European languages are mainly 
adaptations or corruptions of the Spanish ahuacate or aguacate. 
The Portuguese name, used principally in Brazil, is abacate; 
the French generally call the fruit avocat; while the German 
name is advogado or avocato. 

In all probability the avocado was brought to Florida by 
the Spaniards, but the first introduction of which a record has 
been found was in 1833, when Henry Perrine sent trees from 
Mexico to his grant of land below Miami. 

The first successful introduction into California is believed 
to have been in 1871, when R. B. Ord brought three trees from 
Mexico and planted them at Santa Barbara. It seems strange 
that so valuable a fruit should not have been introduced into 
California by the Franciscan padres, who came from Mexico 
in the latter part of the eighteenth century and to whom credit 
is due for the introduction of the orange, the olive, and the 
vine. 

According to Higgins, Hunn, and Holt/ the avocado was 
grown in Hawaii as early as 1825, although it did not become 
common until after 1853. 

The avocado is now cultivated to a very limited extent in 
Algeria, southern Spain, and France, and has even fruited in the 
open at Rome. Naturally, only the hardiest varieties succeed 
in the Mediterranean region. In India and other parts of the 
Orient it has never become common, although it may have 
been introduced as early as the middle of the eighteenth century. 
In Reunion and Madagascar it seems to be more abundant. 
In Polynesia it has become well established, considerable 
quantities of the fruit having been shipped from the French 
island of Tahiti to San Francisco. It is gaining a foothold in 
northern Australia, and is grown in Natal, Mauritius, Madeira, 
1 Bull. 25, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. 



20 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

and the Canary Islands. In the Phihppines its culture has 
been established since the American occupation, many varieties 
having been introduced by the Bureau of Agriculture. 

While it will thus be seen that the avocado has spread from 
its native home entirely around the globe, it is still most abun- 
dant, and of the greatest importance as a food, in tropical 
America. Throughout Mexico, Central America, and the West 
Indies seedlings are common in dooryards, thriving with 
practically no attention and yielding generously of their delicious 
and nourishing fruits. Rarely in these countries, however, 
has the avocado been developed as an orchard crop ; but this 
is not surprising in view of the fact that orchards of fruit- 
trees are almost unknown in the tropics. 

Composition and Uses of the Fruit 

Due to the investigations of M. E. Jaffa and his associates 
at the University of California, much light has been thrown 
on the food value of the avocado in recent years. The following 
table shows the composition of several well-known varieties, 
one of each of the recognized horticultural races, and the 
hybrid Fuerte. In presenting this table, which is based on 
the work of Jaffa, it is necessary to explain that the proportions 
of the constituents have been found to change in each variety 
according to the degree of maturity of the fruits. They may 
fluctuate also in different years. Variation is particularly 
noticeable in regard to the fat-content. For example, in 
specimens of the Chappelow examined at different times, the 
percentage of fat ranged from approximately 14 to 30, while 
in specimens of the Challenge it ran from 3 to 17. Fruits 
showing the lowest percentages were immature at the time the 
analyses were made, but they were no more so, probably, than 
many which are put on the market. Up to a certain point, 
the fat-content increases with the maturity of the fruit ; after 



THE AVOCADO 



21 



this point is reached, there is quite often no further increase, no 
matter how long the fruit may remain on the tree. 

The total dry matter in the edible portion of the avocado is 
greater than in any other fresh fruit, the one nearest approach- 
ing it being the banana, which contains about 25 per cent. An 
average of twenty-eight analyses showed the avocado to con- 
tain about 30 per cent. 

Table I. Composition op Avocado Varieties 



Vakiety 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ash 




% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Trapp .... 


78.66 


1.61 


9.80 


9.08 


0.85 


(West Indian) 












Sharpless . . . 


71.21 


1.70 


20.54 


5.43 


1.12 


(Guatemalan) 












Puebla .... 


63.32 


1.80 


26.68 


6.64 


1.56 


(Mexican) 












Fuerte .... 


69.86 


1.25 


29.14 


7.40 


1.35 


(Hybrid) 













The protein-content, which has been found to average 
about 2 per cent, is higher than that of any other fresh fruit. 

The percentage of carbohydrates is not high compared with 
that of many other fruits, because the avocado contains almost 
no sugar. F. B. La Forge of the Bureau of Chemistry at 
Washington has found in the avocado a new sugar, called 
D-Mannoketoheptose, which is believed to be present in 
amounts varying from 0.5 to 1 per cent. 

The amount of mineral matter is much greater than is 
found in other fresh fruits. Soda, potash, magnesium, and 
lime compose more than one-half the ash or mineral matter, 
which places the avocado among the foods which yield an excess 
of ' the base-forming elements, as opposed to nuts, which furnish 
acid-forming elements in excess. 



22 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Jaffa '^ says : " So far as protein and ash in fresh fruits are 
concerned, the avocado stands at the head of the hst, and with 
reference to the carbohydrates, contains on an average fully 50 
per cent of that found in many fresh fruits. These facts alone 
would warrant due consideration being given to the value of 
the avocado as a fresh fruit. Its chief value as a food, however, 
is due to its high content of fat. This varies, as shown by the 
analysis, from a minimum of 9.8 per cent to a maximum of 
29.1 per cent, with an average of 20.1 per cent. The only 
fruit comparable with the avocado in this respect is the olive." 

Experiments carried on at the University of California have 
shown that the digestibility of avocado fat is equal to that of 
butter-fat, and not below that of beef fat. 

As to the caloric or energy-producing value of the avocado 
in twenty-eight varieties examined, one pound of the flesh 
represents an average of 1000 calories. The maximum and 
minimum were 1325 and 597 respectively. The maximum 
" corresponds to about 75 per cent of the fuel value of the cereals 
and is not far from twice that noted for average lean meat." 

In the following table the avocado is compared, in caloric 
value, with several common foodstuffs. For this comparison 
a pound of avocado flesh has been considered to represent 1000 
calories ; this is not showing the avocado at its best, for, as 
just stated, in some varieties a pound represents over 1300 
calories : 

Calories 

100 grams (about 3| oz.) boiled rice 322 

100 grams white bread 246 

100 grams avocado 218 

100 grams egg 166 

100 grams lean beef 100 

It must not be assumed from the figures that the avocado 
has a total food value greater than that of lean beef. It is 
1 Bull. 254, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



THE AVOCADO 23 

only the caloric or energy-producing values that are shown, and 
much of the value of meat as a food lies, of course, not in the 
energy which it produces, but in its ability to build up and 
repair the tissues of the body. 

In the United States the avocado is commonly used in the 
form of a salad, either alone or combined with lettuce, onions, 
or other vegetables. Up to the present, no satisfactory ways of 
cooking or preserving this fruit have been developed. Experi- 
ments in extracting a table- or cooking-oil have been encourag- 
ing, but as yet the production of avocados in this country is 
not great enough to permit the commercial development of 
this field. In the tropics, the fruit is added to soups at the 
time of serving; mashed with onions and lemon juice to form 
the delectable guacamole of Cuba and Mexico ; or eaten as a 
vegetable, without the addition of any other seasoning than a 
little salt. In Brazil it is looked on more as a dessert than 
as a staple foodstuff, and is made into a delicious ice-cream. 
Numerous recipes appear in cook-books which have been pub- 
lished in Cuba, Florida, California, and Hawaii. 

Climate and Soil 

It is impossible to define in few words the climatic condi- 
tions most favorable to the avocado, since the different races 
do not always succeed under the same conditions. The sub- 
ject must, therefore, be considered from the standpoint of races. 

The West Indian race, which comes from the moist low- 
lands and seacoasts of tropical America, is more susceptible 
to frost than the others. Hence, when grown near the north- 
ern limit of the subtropical zone, it requires more protection 
from possible severe frosts than the Guatemalan race, which 
comes from the highlands of southern Mexico and Guatemala, 
or the hardy avocados from central and northern Mexico 
which constitute the Mexican race. Not a few losses have 



24 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

already resulted from attempts to grow West Indian avocados 
in locations in California subject to occasional severe frosts. 
In this state, the Guatemalan and Mexican races are the only 
ones to plant. The same is true of central and northern 
Florida, where the West Indian race has nearly always suc- 
cumbed to cold. 

In Florida, the region in which avocado culture is- at present 
conducted commercially lies south of Palm Beach on the east 
coast and south of Tampa Bay on the west. Of the orchards 
which are now in bearing, the largest are situated close to 
Miami and Homestead. On the west coast the most impor- 
tant plantings are near Fort Myers. Most of the orchards in 
Florida are planted to Trapp, a variety of the West Indian 
race. The planting of hardy Guatemalan kinds will prob- 
ably extend the commercial culture of this fruit many miles to 
the northward of the present limits of the zone. In addition, 
it will make avocado growing safer in all regions by lessening 
the possibility of frost injury. The Mexican race is known to 
have fruited as far north in Florida as Gainesville and Waldo. 

In California, most of the young orchards, as well as the old 
seedlings which have fruited for some years, are in the vicinity 
of Los Angeles, Orange, and Santa Barbara. The coastal 
belt between Santa Barbara and San Diego, including the 
foothill region some distance from the coast, has been tested 
sufficiently to show that planting may proceed with confidence. 
In the interior valleys comparatively few trees have been 
planted, and these mainly in recent years. Much less is 
known, therefore, regarding the adaptability of the avocado 
in these situations. Old seedlings are to be seen at Visalia, San 
Luis Obispo, Berkeley, Los Gatos, and Napa, indicating that 
some varieties may be grown successfully as far north as the 
Sacramento Valley. Sections of the San Joaquin Valley which 
have proved suitable for citrus culture, such as the Porter- 
ville district, should prove safe for the hardier varieties of 




**. 



*tl....*^ 



I' ^*~:-A-- 








i 




Plate II. Four or five tortillas (corn cakes) and a good-sized 
avocado are considered a good meal by the Guatemala Indians. 



THE AVOCADO 25 

avocados as well. Experimental plantings in the Imperial 
and Coaehella Valleys have up to the present served only to 
indicate that the atmosphere of these regions is too dry. The 
leaves turn brown and fall off, no matter how much water is 
applied at the root. 

As a guide to planters in regions where the avocado has not 
been tested, it may be said that experience has shown the 
Guatemalan race to be about as hardy as the lemon. Certain 
kinds probably are hardier than that, while others are known 
to be more tender. The Mexican race, in its hardier varieties, 
withstands a little more frost than the orange. The West 
Indian race is distinctly more tender than either the Guatemalan 
or Mexican. 

W. J. Krome's experience at Homestead, Florida, leads him 
to say : " As a general rule West Indian avocados, beyond one 
year old, will not be damaged by a temperature of 32° unless 
that temperature holds for a longer period than two or three 
hours. When four or five years old they will stand 26° or 27° 
without injury, except to tender growth, but below that tem- 
perature there is likely to be considerable damage. At 22° 
five-year-old Trapp trees were killed back to wood one inch in 
diameter. At a temperature somewhere between 22° and 24° 
Guatemalans have, with a few exceptions, shown almost no 
damage beyond a slight singeing of the leaves." 

In the Report of the California Avocado Association for 
1917, H. J, Webber publishes the following summary of the 
effect of different temperatures on avocado trees in California 
in the cold weather of the winter of 1916-1917 : 

"30° F. Nothing injured so far as could be observed. 

" 29° F. No injury of account ; only traces on most tender growth 
of West Indian and Guatemalan varieties. 

"28°F. New foliage scorched on Guatemalan types; West 
Indian varieties showing considerable damage. 

" 27° F. Mexican varieties with new tips slightly scorched ; Guate- 
malan with almost all new foliage injured ; West Indian badly damaged. 



26 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

"25° to 26° F. Mexican varieties with new foliage injured but 
some dormant trees uninjured ; all Guatemalan sorts with new foliage 
badly injured and some old foliage scorched. 

" 24° F. Some dormant Mexicans uninjured; Guatemalan varie- 
ties badly injured, small limbs frozen back. 

"21°F. All Guatemalan types killed to bud ; a few of the hardiest 
Mexicans, such as Knowles and San Sebastian, with young leaves 
only injured." 

The observations reported to Webber showed that young 
trees were injured at higher temperatures than older ones, 
when the variety was the same in both cases. It was 
also observed that trees in rapid growth were more severely 
injured than those which were in semi-dormant condition. 
Krome of Florida reports an opposite state of affairs. He 
says: "At the time of the January 1918 freeze, Trapp trees 
which had borne heavy crops and were in a hard, completely 
dormant state suffered a great deal more injury than trees 
which, owing to light crops the preceding season, were in full 
growth." Possibly the trees were weakened by over-production 
of fruit, and thus more susceptible to frost-injury. The sub- 
ject demands further investigation. 

Webber further says : " Trees which needed irrigation when 
the freeze came suffered rather severely, as did also trees that 
had been irrigated three to five days before the freeze and were 
thus gorged with water. The least injury seemed to be on 
trees that had been thoroughly irrigated two or three weeks 
before the freeze, and had water supposedly in what might be 
termed the optimum amount." 

In regions subject to frosts, it is necessary to protect the 
trees during the first two or three winters with shelters of burlap, 
or by placing palm-leaves, pine boughs, or other material 
around them. Frost-fighting with orchard heaters is some- 
times practiced where heavy frosts are expected. 

A sharp frost at the time the tree is in flower may result 
in a crop failure, although the danger from this source is prob- 



THE AVOCADO 27 

ably not great either in California or Florida, and has been 
over-estimated in the past. In Florida, the West Indian race 
usually blooms late enough to escape the coldest weather, while 
in California the Mexican race, though it blooms in winter, is 
sufficiently hardy to withstand ordinary frosts, and the Guate- 
malan race does not bloom until April or May. The latter 
race is, therefore, the safest in this respect. 

In California, avocado culture is not dependent on rainfall, 
since irrigation is commonly practiced. In Florida, on the 
other hand, very few crops are irrigated, and up to the present 
it has been the general custom not to irrigate avocado trees, 
except during the first two or three summers. It is coming 
to be recognized, however, that a wet spring is followed 
by a good avocado crop and a dry one by a poor crop (a 
condition exactly reversed with the mango). As a result of 
this observation, irrigation is beginning to be practiced in 
southern Florida, especially in seasons when the rainfall is 
below normal. 

The necessary soil-moisture can be supplied easily and 
satisfactorily, but the relative humidity of the atmosphere 
cannot be altered artificially; hence in regions where the 
humidity is exceedingly low the avocado suffers in the dry 
portion of the year. In Florida no attention need be paid to 
this subject, since the humidity closely approaches that of the 
West Indies and other regions where the avocado is at home. 
Humidity may prove, however, to be the limiting factor in 
parts of California. Tests in the Imperial and Coachella 
Valleys indicate that the trees are seriously injured by the dry- 
ness of the atmosphere. Experience shows that the Mexican 
race is less susceptible than the West Indian. None of the 
varieties so far tested, however, has proved to be so resistant 
to atmospheric dryness as the orange or grapefruit. Shading 
may help to limit the injury from this source. It has been 
found very beneficial in the coastal belt of California, where 



28 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

young avocado trees are often injured during the dry summer 
months by sunburn. 

Another climatic factor which deserves consideration is the 
danger from high winds. The lower east coast of Florida is 
occasionally visited by a West Indian hurricane which defoli- 
ates trees, strips them of their crops, or even breaks them down. 
Certain parts of California are also subject to occasional high 
winds, less severe than the hurricane but nevertheless capable 
of doing much damage. To minimize the danger from this 
source, it is advisable to keep the trees as low as possible through 
pruning, since they are then much less liable to injury. The 
low tree has an additional advantage in that it permits of 
picking the fruit without the use of tall ladders, and keeps the 
branches more readily accessible for pruning, spraying, or 
thinning the fruit. 

In regard to soil the avocado seems to be unusually adapt- 
able, succeeding on the sandy lands of southern Florida, the 
volcanic loams of Guatemala and Mexico, the red clays of 
Cuba and Guatemala, the granite soils of California, and even 
on heavy adobe, provided the drainage is good. This question 
is less important, therefore, than many others connected with 
avocado culture. The chief requisite is good drainage. 

Most of the avocado groves of southeastern Florida are 
situated upon limestone of the kind shown as Miami oolite. 
This formation comprises a narrow strip of land extending 
from above Fort Lauderdale on the north to some miles below 
Homestead on the south, being widest near the latter place, 
and nowhere more than thirty feet above sea level. In many 
parts of this region the rock comes to the surface ; toward the 
northern end it is commonly overlaid with six inches to two 
feet of loose light-colored quartz sand, while below Miami the 
surface soil becomes very scanty, but heavier in nature, contain- 
ing some clay in certain localities, and being strongly impreg- 
nated with iron, giving it a reddish color. The rock itself is 



THE AVOCADO 29 

soft and porous, and in the process of erosion has broken down 
unequally, leaving a jagged surface or the characteristic pot- 
hole formation. When first grubbed it crumbles and is readily 
worked, but on exposure to the air it gradually hardens, owing 
to the deposition of carbonate of lime following evaporation of 
the moisture held in the interstices. 

The growth made by the avocado upon this rocky land is 
rather remarkable ; it seems, in fact, that young orchards have 
done better around Homestead, where the rock comes to the 
surface, than they have in those areas north of IVIiami where 
there are six to eighteen inches of sand on top of the rock. 
The reason for this may lie in the moistm-e-retaining proper- 
ties of this soft limestone ; the roots, which are always close 
to the surface, here probably are kept more uniformly supplied 
with moisture during a period of dry weather than on light 
sandy soils which dry out rapidly. 

The heavier Florida soils seem to be much more favorable 
to the growth of the tree than light sands. A yellowish or 
brownish subsoil in many parts of Florida indicates good 
avocado land. The avocado prefers a moist heavy loam, and 
the closer this can be approached the better will be the results. 

The soils of California are probably more nearly ideal for 
avocado culture than any of those in southern Florida. Sandy 
loam, which is abundant in the southern part of the state, pro- 
duces excellent growth and is giving good results. Adobe 
does not seem so desirable, yet good trees have been grown 
upon it at Orange. 

Red clay has been satisfactory in Cuba and Central America, 
while heavy clay where well drained has produced good trees 
in Porto Rico. 

Many problems connected with avocado culture remain 
to be solved. One of the most important is the adaptability 
of the tree to low wet lands in southern Florida. It has been 
the general opinion that avocados should not be planted on 



30 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUm 

land where the water-table is less than three feet below the 
surface. Krome has observed groves on low rock-land which 
have been killed or badly injured by overflows, even where the 
water came scarcely as high as the crown roots and remained 
there only a few days. In several plantings on marl prairie, 
however, experience has been quite different. Trees on this 
type of land have been submerged twenty-four hours without 
damage to them. On the low islands along the western coast 
of Florida, salt water sometimes floods the groves, and this 
has proved fatal to many trees. It is probable, also, that] 
the failure of one or two plantings on this coast can be attrib- 
uted to the fact that the water which stands about two feet 
below the surface of the land is saline in character. 

Until more experience has been gained regarding the adapta- 
bility of the avocado to low flat ground, occasionally subject 
to overflow, orchard plantings should be limited to lands 
where the water-table is three feet or more below the surface. 

In California, the best site for the orchard is a gently slop- 
ing hillside, or level ground adjacent to a slope. If of this 
character, and well drained but naturally retentive of mois- 
ture, the situation may be considered excellent. In regions 
subject to heavy winds, it is well to select a piece of ground 
which is sheltered by surrounding elevations. 

Cultivation 



Regarding the best time to plant avocados in southern 
Florida, Krome says : 

" I have planted at least a few avocados every year since 1905 and 
these plantings have been made during every month of the year. 
When I have the land prepared and the trees available I do not hesi- 
tate to plant at any season but I endeavor to make my arrangements 
so that all of my main settings will be between the 15th of Septem- 
ber and the 20tli of October, i.e. during the last month of the regular 
rainy season, after the hottest weather of the year is past. When 
avocados are planted in the spring in Florida they have immediately 



THE AVOCADO 31 

ahead of them our most trying months of drought, March, April 
and usually most of May. During this period the plants must be 
watered with the greatest regularity or they will suffer. Following 
the dry weather of our spring months the trees have the benefit of the 
rainy season but in Florida our rains are quite frequently uncertain 
during July and August and there will be need for watering any trees 
planted during the preceding three or four months. For the past 
month (June) we have averaged at least two applications of water per 
week to avocados planted during March, April and May. These 
spring-planted trees must also withstand the sun's rays during our 
season of greatest heat and shading is usually a necessity if sun-scald 
is to be prevented. There are no good reasons why trees thus planted 
should not be brought through to fall in good condition but it requires 
a great deal of additional work and expense as compared with trees 
planted during the latter part of September or first half of October, 
when rains are of almost daily occurrence and the plants after setting 
need very little further attention. Furthermore, spring-planted 
trees very seldom make sufficient growth over those planted in the 
fall to acquire any considerably greater degree of resistance to cold 
the following winter. I have always found that trees planted in March 
fare just about as badly as those planted in September when we have 
severe cold the next winter." 



In California it is not desirable to plant earlier than March, 
because of danger from late frosts. April and May are good 
months, and November planting has been successful. Plant- 
ing in midsummer is to be avoided, but it may be done success- 
fully if the trees are carefully shaded and watered until they 
have become established. 

Avocados are sometimes interplanted with other fruit-trees, 
such as grapefruit and mangos. This is scarcely to be recom- 
mended, since avocados require different cultural treatment. 

In Florida, budded avocados are planted 20 by 20 feet (108 
to the acre) to 26 by 26 feet (64 to the acre), some growers 
preferring to have the trees close together so that they will 
soon shade the ground, others desiring to give more room for 
ultimate development. On light sandy soil the trees are 
usually set closer than on heavy soils, 20 by 20 feet being a 
suitable distance in the first case, 24 by 24 in the second. In 



32 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

California they should not be spaced closer than 24 by 24 feet, 
making 75 to the acre; 30 by 30 feet (48 to the acre) is 
preferable. 

Holes for planting should be prepared a month in advance, 
with a small quantity of fertilizer incorporated in each. Barn- 
yard manure is commonly used for this purpose in California, 
while South American goat manure and pulverized sheep manure, 
2 or 3 pounds to each hole, have proved satisfactory in Florida. 

In planting, the tree should be set so that the point of 
union between the bud and the seedling stock is slightly above 
the surface. Deeper planting may not be objectionable in 
California, but in Florida shallow planting seems to be best. 
A liberal watering should be given immediately after planting. 

Tillage, mulching, and cover-crops. 

The ground around the young trees should be kept liberally 
mulched with weeds, straw, barnyard litter, seaweed, or any 
coarse material which is not injurious and will not pack and 
form a layer impervious to air and water. Through the winter 
a mulch is not necessary in California, but in Florida it has been 
found desirable, in some sections at least, to maintain one 
throughout the year. In Porto Rico, G. N. Collins observed 
that the avocado tree was seldom, if ever, found in perfectly 
open places, with the bare ground around the roots exposed 
to the sun. While this principle applies more particularly 
to Florida and other regions distinctly tropical in character, 
it may be proved to hold good in California as well. Definite 
knowledge on this point is still lacking. Up to the present 
it is the practice of many California orchardists to cultivate 
the soil regularly after each irrigation, as with citrus fruits. 
Deep cultivation seems to produce no harmful results in Cali- 
fornia, where the roots go far down into the soil, but in southern 
Florida it must be practiced with caution. In this region the 
feeding roots extend practically to the surface, and deep culti- 



# 



THE AVOCADO 33 

vation destroys many of them, thus cutting off a large part 
of the tree's food supply. On shallow soils the most healthy 
and vigorous trees are those which are mulched. The mulch 
should extend at least two feet in each direction from the 
trunk of the young tree, and as the latter increases in size 
and its roots reach out on all sides, the mulch must be en- 
larged to be always a little wider than the diameter of the crown. 

Mulching serves two purposes : it prevents the soil from 
drying out rapidly, and it protects the delicate feeding roots 
from injury due to excessive heating of the soil. This protec- 
tion is of particular importance in Florida, where in many 
places the land is sandy and becomes exceedingly hot if exposed 
to the sun. 

When the trees are of mature size, the shade furnished by 
their own foliage, together with the fallen leaves which carpet 
the ground, aids materially in maintaining the soil in good 
condition ; but additional loose material, especially during 
the summer, is highly desirable. 

The use of green cover-crops between the rows is decidedly 
beneficial, but they must not be brought close enough to the 
trees to rob them of their food. In Florida, cowpeas and 
velvet beans have been used for this purpose, cowpeas being 
preferred. A clump of pigeon peas {Cajanus indicus) planted 
four feet to the south of each young tree will provide shade 
during the first summer or two, serve as a protection from wind, 
and aid in enriching the soil. In California, purple vetch 
(Vicia atropurpurea) , common vetch, and the other cover- 
crops used in citrus culture will probably prove satisfactory. 
Up to the present time they have not been extensively tried 
in connection with avocado culture. 

Fertilizer. 

Little systematic attention has yet been given to this subject. 
Not only is the question difficult, but it is also one of the most 



34 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

important in connection with avocado culture in Florida. The 
following extracts from a paper by Krome, published in the 
1916 Report of the California Avocado Association, present 
the results of several years of experimentation : 

"The nature of the plant food required by the avocado has not 
been very satisfactorily determined, but it has become evident that 
a scheme of fertilization must be worked out differing considerably 
from that which has been generally adopted for citrus. Broadly 
speaking the application of commercial fertilizers deriving their ele- 
ments of plant food from wholly chemical sources has not proved 
successful. In many instances, through lack of more definite infor- 
mation, growers have given their avocados the same fertilizers which 
they have used on their citrus trees. Where the formulae have been 
those most frequently applied to citrus, with nitrogen derived from 
sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda, potash from sulphate of 
potash, and phosphoric acid from acid phosphate, the results with 
the avocado have been generally unsatisfactory. However, when 
the formula used has been of the type known as 'young tree ' fertilizer, 
carrying a proportionately higher percentage of ammonia largely 
derived from organic sources, better effects have been obtained. 

" It has become fairly well established as a fact that of two avocado 
trees of the same variety, one which is well nourished and kept in 
growing condition during the entire summer and fall will produce 
larger and finer appearing fruit than one which is permitted to become 
more or less dormant through lack of fertilizer, but it is quite certain 
that the semi-dormant tree will carry its fruit without dropping for a 
considerably longer time. There is therefore a rather delicate adjust- 
ment to be made in order to bring the tree into condition such that 
it will hold its crop until late in the season and at the same time will 
not 'go back' to an extent that wiU be seriously detrimental to its 
further development or jeopardize the crop for the following season. 

"Following such applications of fertilizer as are made to restore 
the tree to good condition after it has passed through the period of 
bloom and fruit setting there should certainly be at least one further 
fertilizing during the summer or early fall to provide the nourishment 
necessary for the production of the crop. And it may be added here 
that the drain on an avocado tree in bringing its fruit to maturity 
seems to be vastly greater in proportion than the same effort on the 
part of a citrus tree. The writer cannot vouch for the soundness of 
the theory, but it has been thought that this is probably due to the 
different character of the fruit. In the case of any citrus, water con- 
stitutes a large percentage of the fruit either by weight or volume, 
while with the avocado the proportion of oils is much higher and it 



THE AVOCADO 35 

would seem reasonable that to supply these components would be a 
heavier draft upon the tree. At any rate the fact is certain that an 
avocado tree must be furnished with a sufficiency of plant food if it 
is to be expected to produce full and regular crops. 

"Avocados of the West Indian type begin to ripen in Florida 
about the middle of July and the heaviest portion of the seedling crop 
matures between August 20th and October 10th. At that period the 
crop from Cuba and other West Indian islands is likewise being shipped 
and the large quantity of fruit thus thrown on the market, together 
with the fact that during the summer and early fall the avocado must 
compete with northern-grown fruits and vegetables, tend to force 
prices so low, that at times it is difficult to dispose of the Florida 
seedlings with any margin of profit. After the middle of October 
the price of avocados begins to climb and during November and 
December very satisfactory figures are usually obtained. For this 
reason the large plantings of budded trees which have been made 
during the past few years have practically all been of late maturing 
varieties such as the Trapp and Waldin. These varieties mature 
their fruit so that it may be picked early in October if desired, but 
under proper conditions will carry at least a portion of their crop into 
December and in some cases until well along in January. 

"Just how late in the season an application of fertilizer can be 
made without bringing about a tendency for the tree to mature and 
drop its fruit at too early a date depends somewhat on weather condi- 
tions. Fertilizer applied to Trapp trees about the middle of August 
of the season just passed, apparently had no detrimental effect as to 
the fruit holding well, while an application of fertilizer given the same 
trees about the first of September of the preceding year was followed, 
within a few weeks, by heavy dropping of fully matured fruit. The 
application made in August of the present year was at the beginning 
of several weeks of dry weather, while that of the previous season 
was followed by heavy rains and these differences in moisture probably 
had considerable to do with the effects of the fertilizer. 

"This second problem is one of great importance to the Florida 
avocado grower as between December 1 and December 15 the value 
of his product not infrequently more than doubles and the premium 
to be gained by being able to carry his fruit until the latest possible 
date is well worth his very best efforts. 

" It is our plan at Medora Grove to give the trees a heavy fertilizing 
immediately after the crop has been picked and a light application 
about the first of February, which brings them to their blooming stage 
in good condition, quite thoroughly recuperated from their fast during 
the fall. 

"This program provides for five or six applications of fertilizer 
during the year, which is probably one or two more than is given by 



36 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

most growers, the difference being in the method of carrying the trees 
through the spring period. The quantity of fertilizer used at each 
application varies of course with the size of the tree, quantity of fruit 
it is carrying and the analysis of the fertilizer. For ten year old trees 
as high as 25 pounds at a single application has been used with good 
results. For four year old trees, bearing their first crop, four applica- 
tions of from three to four pounds each, one of four and one-half and 
one of five pounds have brought the trees through the year in fine 
shape. As materials from which fertilizers suitable for avocados may 
be compounded, cottonseed meal, castor pomace, tankage, ground 
tobacco stems and ground bone are to be recommended, with a cer- 
tain amount of nitrate of soda used as a source of nitrogen when quick 
results are sought as in the case of trees which have 'started back.' 
Previous to the war scarcity of potash, it was thought advisable to 
use formulse giving from four to six per cent of that element, but the 
enforced limitations to the percentage of potash obtainable during 
the past two years has had no apparent ill effects upon the trees or 
fruit and seemingly a range of from zero to four per cent will provide 
all the potash that an avocado tree requires under Florida conditions. 
A formula that has given good results is built up of cottonseed meal, 
castor pomace, tankage, and ground tobacco stems, analyzing 4 per cent 
to 5 per cent ammonia, 6 per cent to 7 per cent phosphoric acid and 
2 per cent potash. 

"The trees were usually cultivated by hoeing three times each year 
and a heavy mulching of dead grass or weeds during the dry winter 
season. If instead of the dead grass a mulching of compost or well 
rotted stable manure is used the results are even more satisfactory and 
the February application of fertilizer may then be omitted entirely." 

In California, stable manure has been practically the only- 
fertilizer used up to the present. The necessary nitrogen 
can be obtained from this source, and the organic matter 
added to the soil is also of benefit. 

Irrigation. 

An abundance of water is especially important during the 
first two or three years after the tree is planted, if rapid healthy 
growth is to be maintained. In Florida, particularly in sections 
where the soil is deep, many young groves have in the past 
suffered for lack of water. One of the most experienced growers 
near Miami states that trees which have had abundant irriga- 



THE AVOCADO 37 

tion are as large at four years of age as non-irrigated trees at 
six years. Their larger size enables them to yield commercial 
crops earlier than non-irrigated trees. 

In California it is the general practice to irrigate avocados 
in the same manner as citrus fruits. The amount of water 
necessary for maximum development varies considerably on 
different soils, but during the first few years a thorough irrigation 
every ten days during the dry season is not too much. 

The importance of an abundance of moisture in the soil at 
the time the fruit is setting has already been mentioned in 
the discussion of the climatic requirements of the avocado. 
Several crop failures in Florida have been blamed on unusually 
dry weather during this period. A drought probably does 
little harm if it occurs when the trees are just beginning to 
bloom, but if it continues the flowers are likely to drop and the 
crop to be a failure. This has been the experience with 
Trapps when grown on deep sand ; on heavy soils, which are 
more retentive of moisture, the danger is less. 

In order to avoid crop failures from this cause, the grower 
should certainly be prepared to irrigate at the time the fruit 
is setting. In southern Florida this is usually in March and 
April. When a prolonged dry spell occurs just at this time, as 
is sometimes the case, two or three thorough irrigations, a 
week apart, may suffice to save a considerable amount of fruit. 

In California, if the soil is allowed to become too dry during 
the hot summer months, young trees are frequently given a 
setback from which they are slow to recover. This has been 
observed in Florida as well, particularly on deep sandy soils. 

The method of applying water varies in different regions. 
In California the basin system is commonly used, especially 
when the number of trees to be irrigated is small. Basins 
should be filled with coarse strawy manure to serve as a mulch. 
In many orchards the trees are irrigated by the furrow system 
which is used with citrus fruits, the soil being cultivated after 



38 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

each irrigation. In southern Florida other methods are made 
necessary by the fact that water cannot be run in furrows over 
the sandy soil. Revolving sprinklers, placed at the proper 
distance so that all the ground will be covered by their spray, 
are sometimes employed. Where economy of water is a factor, 
these are less desirable than the basin system. Taken in all, 
it seems that the best method of irrigating is to form around 
the tree a basin as wide as the spread of the branches (or wider 
during the first two years), to fill it with weeds, straw, manure, 
seaweed, or other loose mulch, and then to apply water at 
least once in two weeks when the rainfall is not sufficient to 
maintain the tree in good growing condition. 

Pruning. 

The amount of pruning required by the avocado depends 
largely on the variety. Some make short stocky growths and 
form shapely trees without the assistance of the pruning- 
shears, while others take long straggling shapes and do not 
branch sufficiently to form a good crown. These latter must be 
cut back heavily. Trapp, and other varieties of the West 
Indian race in general, usually make low stocky trees, branch- 
ing abundantly and forming plenty of fruiting wood. With 
such forms, pruning is reduced to the minimum, consisting 
principally in removing fruit-spurs which die back after the 
crop has been harvested, and in the occasional cutting back 
of a branch to produce a crown of symmetrical form and good 
proportions. Beyond this very little pruning is done in 
Florida orchards. 

With the Guatemalan race, more training is often necessary 
to produce a tree of ideal proportions, since some varieties tend 
to make long unbranched growths. In others the lateral 
branches are very weak and scarcely able to bear their own 
weight if allowed to develop unhindered. With these, care- 
ful attention should be given during the first few years to pro- 



THE AVOCADO 39 

ducing a well balanced tree capable of carrying good crops of 
fruit. 

The Mexican race usually shows a tendency to grow more 
stiffly erect than the others, and make stout rigid branches 
which are capable of bearing heavy crops. In order to keep 
some of these varieties from becoming too tall and slender, 
it is necessary to top them when young, perhaps pinching out 
the buds of the main branches later on to induce branching. 

It is not desirable to have the crown so dense that light will 
not reach all parts freely. When the crown is too thick, fruit 
is produced only on its outer surface, and much of the fruit- 
bearing capacity of the tree is thus wasted. 

Thus it can be seen that no specific rules for pruning, cover- 
ing all varieties, can be laid down, other than that the object 
should be to produce a tree having a broad, strong, well- 
branched crown of good proportions and great fruiting capacity, 
preferably headed low (about 30 inches above the ground), in 
order to shade the soil beneath it. After the tree has reached 
maturity little pruning is required, provided it has had the 
benefit of careful training during the first few years. Experi- 
ence along this line is meager, however, and the future will 
bring out many new points of importance. 

In top- working old seedlings, it is often necessary to cut off 
large limbs. The stubs should be smoothed off and covered 
with a coating of grafting-wax. The same rule applies to 
cuts made in the course of ordinary pruning with young as well 
as old trees. When secondary branches are removed, they 
should be cut as close to their junction with the main branch 
as possible, and the cut should be parallel with the main branch. 
The cut surface should be treated with a coating of grafting- 
wax. Paint is sometimes used for this purpose, but in Florida 
it has been found injurious, especially to young trees. If 
the stubs are not waxed, they often allow fungi to start and 
destroy the wood. The entrance of such fungi is facilitated 



40 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

by the fact that the pith sinks in the cut ends of large Hmbs, 
leaving a small cavity to collect water and maintain the moist 
conditions which are so favorable to fungous growth. 

Opinions differ as to the best time for pruning. In Florida 
late fall and winter, November to February, have proved suit- 
able. In California the best growers seem to favor spring or 
fall. According to Krome, pruning in hot weather often 
results in serious injury. The most favorable times seem to 
be early spring, before growth has commenced and before the 
heat of summer, and autumn after hot weather is past. 

Propagation 

Avocados do not come true from seed ; that is, a tree grown 
from a seed of the Trapp variety will not produce Trapp fruits, 
although it may produce fruits similar in character. For 
commercial purposes it is necessary to propagate the trees 
by budding or grafting, in order to insure good fruit of uniform 
quality and to eliminate sparse bearers, or trees otherwise 
undesirable. 

Seedling avocados are often grown, especially in the tropics. 
While named varieties cannot be propagated in this way, if 
the seed is taken from good fruit the tree which it produces 
is likely to bear such fruit. But occasionally seedling trees 
do not bear, and some have other undesirable qualities, so 
that it is always best to plant a budded tree. Seedlings can 
only be recommended, in fact, where a tree is desired for the 
dooryard merely, in which case the ornamental appearance 
of the avocado makes it eminently satisfactory. If such trees 
do not bear well no special loss is entailed. 

Since 1901, when George B. Cellon first budded the avocado 
commercially, several methods of vegetative propagation have 
been applied to this plant by nurserymen. While all of these 
have been successful in the hands of certain propagators, 



THE AVOCADO 41 

shield-budding, which was originally used by Cellon, has proved 
the most generally dependable, and is now employed by most 
nurserymen in California and Florida. It is, therefore, given 
major consideration here, while methods of grafting are de- 
scribed in less detail. 

Stock plants. 

In Florida it has been the custom to bud or graft West 
Indian varieties on seedlings of the same race. In California 
the Guatemalan race has usually been budded on the Mexican, 
in the belief that the superior hardiness of the latter would 
make the budded tree less susceptible to cold and also because 
seeds of the Mexican race are more easily obtainable. Recently 
in Florida the Guatemalan has been budded on the West Indian, 
the West Indian on the Mexican, and so on ; and these experi- 
ments, although not extensive, have served to indicate that the 
question of stocks is of great importance, and demands further 
investigation. Not only does it appear that the hardiness of 
the tree may in a measure depend on the nature of the root 
stock, but the congeniality of the various races, when budded 
on each other, seems to differ. Attempts to bud the West 
Indian on the Mexican have produced rather indifferent results 
in Florida, the buds making a poor union and growing very 
slowly. The Mexican race has not been tried on the West 
Indian extensively, but this practice appears to succeed better 
than the reverse. The Guatemalan buds well on the West 
Indian, but is perhaps preferable on Guatemalan roots. 

Seeds are usually obtainable most abundantly in August and 
September in Florida, a month or two later in California, having 
reference to the West Indian race in the former state and the 
Mexican in the latter. These two races are those generally 
used for seedling stocks. The seeds should be planted soon 
after removal from the fruit, although they are viable for sev- 
eral weeks if kept cool and dry. Seeds of the Mexican race 



42 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

have even been kept for three or four months in good condition, 
in the dry dimate of Cahfornia. 

Previous to the issuing of Quarantine Order No. 12 of the 
Federal Horticultural Board, prohibiting the importation of 
avocado seeds from Mexico, many thousands were imported 
annually to California from that country. In shipping these, 
the best results were obtained when the seeds were removed 
from the fruit, washed immediately, dried in the shade, and 
packed loosely in wooden boxes without the addition of moist- 
ened sawdust, charcoal, sphagnum moss, or other material. 
The percentage of loss with such seeds was insignificant. When 
shipping seeds from moist tropical regions, greater difficulty 
is experienced, decay being more troublesome. Good results 
are sometimes secured by shipping in slightly dampened char- 
coal, but where the distance is not too great the best method 
seems to be to wash and dry the seeds and then pack them 
loosely in wooden boxes, as above described. 

Seeds are planted in pots, boxes, flats, or in the open ground. 
For nursery work on a large scale, planting in flats and seed- 
beds has given excellent results. The seedlings are transplanted 
almost as soon as they have sprouted. In California seeds 
planted in the seed-bed during autumn, October to December, 
will make plants six to twelve inches high by March or April, 
when they may be planted out in the field in nursery rows. 

While seedlings are sometimes budded in pots or boxes, field 
budding is more satisfactory, as it is difficult to bring pot-grown 
trees into the vigorous growth essential to success in budding. 

Planting in the field should be done in California as soon as 
danger from frost and cold weather is past. Nursery rows 
should be 3 to 4 feet apart, with the plants 18 inches apart in 
the row (or about 12 inches in Florida). Partial shade should 
always be given the young plants for a few days after they 
are set in the open, especially if they have been sprouted, as 
they should be, under a lath- or slat-house. In Florida, seeds 



THE AVOCADO 43 

planted in August may be set out in the field in November, and 
should make trees ready to bud by January or February, 
which is the proper season for budding in that state. 

For germinating seeds, a light, loose, sandy loam is prefer- 
able, pure sand sometimes being used in California if the seed- 
lings are to be transplanted as soon as they have germinated. 
Four-inch pots are large enough for seeds of the Mexican race, 
but frequently a five- or six-inch pot is necessary to accommo- 
date the West Indian. In Florida, wooden boxes about 
6 inches in each dimension are often used, while in California 
tin cans are employed, but the latter are much less desirable 
than clay pots. When planted in flats or seed-beds, the seeds 
may be placed close together. The pointed end of the seed, 
— or in the case of round seeds, the end which has been toward 
the stem in the fruit, — should be uppermost, and it is usually 
allowed to project above the surface of the soil, not more than 
four-fifths of the seed being below the surface. If the seed- 
coats are loose and come off easily, it is well to remove them 
before planting. 

The soil should be kept moist while the seeds are germinat- 
ing. The time required for germination varies greatly, sprouts 
sometimes appearing within two weeks from planting, while 
in other instances they may be two or three months in starting. 
A month is the average time in warm weather. 

Essential features of bud propagation. 

Shield-budding is most successful when the stocks are small 
and full of vigor. If the plants are once allowed to cease the 
rapid thrifty growth with which they spring from the seed, the 
wood hardens, sap is less abundant, and if the bud unites at all 
there is great difficulty in forcing it into growth. Those who 
do not devote their undivided attention to the propagation of 
the avocado sometimes allow the seedlings to get into this 
condition before they attempt to bud them, and as a result 






44 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

failures are numerous. It must be stated unreservedly that 
shield-budding of the avocado, to be successful, must be made 
the subject of careful and intelligent study on the part of the 
nurseryman, who must exercise constant vigilance to keep the 

stock plants in perfect condi- 
tion. If this is done, and bud- 
wood is intelligently selected, 
success is within reach, but the 
number of failures from neglect 
or ignorance of these two points 
might well be enough to dis- 
courage the beginner from at- 
tempting to bud the avocado. 
It is only through the closest 
application to minute details 
that real success in budding 
avocados can be achieved, and 
it may truthfully be said that 
those who have produced 
budded trees in quantity have 
invariably been men who have 
devoted their best efforts to 
the work and made it a pains- 
taking study. 




Fig. 3. Shield-budding the avo- 
cado. On the left, a bud properly in- 
serted ; above the knife blade, two 
buds of proper size and shape ; and on 
the right, budwood with^ood " eyes." 
The method of wrapping the inserted 
bud is shown in Fig. 11. 



Budding (Fig. 3). 

As soon as the stock plants 
are large enough to receive the 
bud conveniently they should 
be budded , provided the season 
is favorable. In southern Florida the best months for budding 
the West Indian race are November, December, January, and 
February. Budding can be continued into March with success, 
but after warm weather commences the percentage of failures 



THE AVOCADO 45 

is too high to make the undertaking profitable. In Cahfornia 
the best time is as soon as the sap has begun to flow freely. This 
usually occurs late in April or early in May, at which season 
there is a period of three or foiu* weeks when budding is more 
successful than at any other time of the year. After this short 
period, however, avocados are in active growth and the proper 
sort of budwood is difficult to obtain, hence it is best to wait 
until the growth has hardened sufficiently to make good bud- 
wood. This will usually be late in June or in July, when bud- 
ding can be recommenced and continued until autumn. October 
and November are good months, although not quite so favor- 
able as the first-named period in the spring. Buds inserted in 
autumn frequently push out within -five or six weeks and must 
be protected carefully during the ensuing winter. Unless the 
work is done very late in the autumn, the buds cannot be held 
dormant until spring. 

Selection of the proper type of budwood requires more ex- 
perience and judgment than any other feature of avocado 
propagation, since the character of the buds differs widely 
among varieties of the same race. Some kinds make such 
poor budwood that not more than 50 per cent of the buds will 
grow even for the most skillful propagator ; in other varieties, 
such as Taft and Fuerte, 95 per cent of the buds can frequently 
be made to develop into trees. In general, it may be said that 
the budwood should be of recent growth, not soft enough to 
snap on bending but beginning to mature. In early spring, bud- 
wood must be obtained from mature growth of the previous 
fall and early winter. In summer it must be obtained from 
the current season's growth. In some sorts, such as Fuerte, 
very young budwood can be used successfully, but that which 
has commenced to mature is usually better. Buds can some- 
times be cut from the tips of the branchlets and from 6 to 12 
inches from the tip, according to the variety and the condi- 
tion of the wood. Buds which have broken into growth should 



46 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

be avoided, in the case of most varieties, at least; so should 
those from which the outer bud-scales have dropped, as this 
is indicative of old wood, and such buds, when inserted, will 
frequently "drop their eyes" and leave a blind shield from 
which a tree cannot develop. 

To insert the buds, an incision is made in the stock, as close 
to the ground as convenient, either in the form of a T or an 
inverted T. No particular advantage seems to be derived from 
either form of incision, both being used quite successfully. 
The bark should not be opened by using the ivory end of the 
budding-knife, as this injures the delicate tissues below; if 
the bark does not separate from the wood readily enough to 
allow the bud to be pushed in easily, the stock is too dry to be 
budded. The propagator should always aim to have the stock 
plants in such vigorous condition that he can force the bud into 
the incision with very slight pressure and without loosening the 
bark with his knife. The most skillful budders, when making the 
horizontal cut of the incision, turn the knife blade forward 
dexterously, forcing the bark away from the stock and leaving 
a sufScient opening in which to insert the point of the bud. 
The latter is then pushed in very gently and wrapped imme- 
diately with a strip of waxed cloth, rafSa, soft cotton twine, or 
plain tape. This should be wound firmly around the stock, from 
the bottom upward, and fastened securely at the upper end, 
above the incision, by slipping the end through the last loop and 
drawing it down tightly. 

In cutting the buds, an extremely thin-bladed, sharp-edged 
budding-knife should be used, and it should never be allowed to 
become the least bit dull. A razor-strop is usually worn by 
budders, attached to the belt; after ten or fifteen buds have 
been cut, the knife is given a few strokes on the strop to keep it 
in perfect condition. It should be the aim of the budder to 
cut the bud with one sliding stroke of the knife, keeping 
the blade as nearly parallel with the budstick as possible, so 




73 

i=l 



O 

03 
a 
O 

> 






THE AVOCADO 47 

that the cut surface will be flat and not rounded at the ends. 
Buds which are gouged out do not fit snugly on the stock. It 
is well to cut the buds somewhat larger than citrus buds, 1 
inch being the minimum length, and li inches the ideal for 
most varieties. This must vary, of course, with the size of the 
stock and budwood, large stocks sometimes taking a bud 2 
inches long. 

Opinions differ as to the best material for wrapping, some 
preferring waxed cloth, while others have found plain cloth 
tape equally good, and still others use raffia successfully. 
Waxed cloth is doubtless the safest, but the objection to it 
has been that in hot weather the wax melts and works its 
way into the bud, sometimes killing it. This can be avoided 
by using a compound of 1 pound beeswax and i pound rosin. 
The cloth, preferably a cheap grade of bleached muslin, should 
be torn in strips 6 inches wide, made into rolls 1 inch in di- 
ameter, and boiled for fifteen minutes in this mixture. It may 
then be kept until needed, when it is torn into narrow strips of 
the proper width and length for tying buds. 

Three weeks after insertion the buds should have united with 
the stock, and the wraps must be loosened or they will soon bind 
the stock, if growth is active. They should not be removed 
until the end of six weeks or .two months. In order to force 
the bud into growth, the tree should be topped at the time the 
wrap is first loosened, 3 or 4 inches being removed from the tip. 
The axillary buds along the stem will then break into growth ; 
some of these should be allowed to develop for a while, to keep 
up an active flow of sap. In another four or five weeks the top 
should be cut back farther, but a few axillary buds still left 
on the seedling to grow and maintain the flow of sap. If the 
stock is cut back too heavily the first time, the eye may fall 
from the bud, leaving a blind shield. Lopping, as practiced 
with many other fruits, is not altogether successful with the 
avocado. 



48 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

As soon as the bud has made a growth of 3 or 4 inches, it 
should be tied back to the stem of the seedling with raffia. 
Later it must be stake-trained, and when it has reached a height 
of 24 to 30 inches it should be forced to branch and form a 
shapely top. The stub which remains from the seedling stock 
should not be cut off until the bud has developed to the height 
of one foot. In California it is usually considered best to 
remove the stub in winter ; it should be cut off just above the 
bud, and the cut surface covered with grafting-wax, or shellac 
made with alcohol and a little rosin. Common paint should 
not be used for this purpose. 

Field-grown trees, after they have reached the proper size, 
are either lifted and put into pots or boxes, where they are held 
until established and then planted in the field; or they are 
balled at any time after they have gone dormant in late winter, 
and heeled-in under a plant-shed, where they can be kept until 
spring and then planted out. In Florida, field-grown plants 
are usually lifted and set in wooden boxes 5 X 5 X 12 inches in 
size. As soon as they are placed in these boxes, they must 
be set in partial shade and watered copiously. When they 
have become established, which will be within a month or 
six weeks, they can be transplanted to the orchard. 

Transplanting with bare roots has not proved generally 
satisfactory in California. Regarding his experience with it 
in Florida, Krome says : 

" This may become one of the recognized methods of planting and 
under certain conditions it has many advantages over setting either 
boxed or balled plants. Two years ago I moved about four hundred 
seedlings with semi-bare roots and lost only three trees in the process. 
The trees were two year stocks averaging four feet in height grown 
in a 'red-flat' at my own grove. We began transplanting during 
July but most of the trees were moved in September. We waited 
until the trees had reached a dormant state between flushes and then 
defoliated them and pruned back the most tender growth. We moved 
them only after three o'clock in the afternoon when the greatest heat 
of the day was over, digging only as many trees as could be carefully 



THE AVOCADO 49 

planted during the remainder of that day. Before digging we wet 
down the surrounding soil until it puddled easily. The trees were 
dug with as much of the root systems as could well be handled and the 
roots were immediately wrapped in wet burlap and the trees placed 
in the shade. We did our defoliating and pruning back considerably 
ahead of the digging and found that trees which had been cut back for a 
week or more and had just started a new growth could be moved as 
successfully, and in fact grew off better, than those which had been 
more recently defoliated. 

" Since then we have carried on experiments in this line at our 
nursery, using trees with roots entirely bare, and have had a very 
low percentage of loss. Upon our recommendation a number of 
avocado growers in South Dade have tried the method with a limited 
number of trees and without exception have expressed themselves as 
intending to make all their plantings hereafter with bare-root trees. 

" The two essentials seem to be getting the tree into proper condition 
before moving from its original position and plenty of water after 
transplanting." 

Grafting. 

One method of grafting has been employed extensively 
for the production of nursery stock in Florida, and an- 
other has been used on a limited scale for top-working old 
trees. 

The system extensively used is a modified form of the side- 
graft employed with other plants. The seeds are germinated 
in a seed-bed; when the sprouts have reached a height of 5 
or 6 inches the plants are dug and laid on the bench. A cut 
an inch long is made on one side of the sprout, just above the 
seed, and a thin section of the stem removed, exposing the 
tissues. The cion is then taken from the tip of a very small 
branchlet, preferably one which has not fully matured. It 
should be about 1 inch long, and provided with one or two 
axillary buds as well as the terminal. It is trimmed on one 
side to a tapering point at the lower end, and this cut surface 
is placed against the cut on the stock, after which it is bound 
carefully in place. The plant is then potted, placed under 
partial shade, and carefully watered from day to day. After 



50 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

a union is effected, the top of the seedling is removed and the 
cion allowed to develop. 

Top-working old trees. 

Large numbers of seedling avocados have been planted in 
Florida and California. Many of these produce fruits inferior 
in quality to the best budded varieties, while quite a number 
do not produce at all. It is often desired, therefore, to convert 
such avocados into budded trees of choice varieties, and this 
can easily be done. 

Several methods of top-working are employed, the most 
satisfactory one being shield-budding. When trees are to be 
top-worked by this means, they should be cut back in November 
or December in Florida, February or March in California, 
removing three-fourths of the main limbs a foot or two from 
their union with the trunk, the remainder being left to keep the 
tree in vigorous condition. The limbs should be cut off with a 
sharp saw, to avoid splitting or tearing on the lower side. The 
stubs should be covered with a good coating of grafting-wax. 

When growth has commenced, in early spring, numerous 
sprouts will appear around the upper ends of the stubs. Only 
three or four of the strongest should be allowed to remain on 
each stub, and when these have reached the diameter of one's 
little finger, they may be budded in the same manner as seed- 
lings, with a large bud, preferably from growth which is not 
mature. The exceedingly vigorous growth of these sprouts 
makes success much more certain than in budding seedlings 
in the nursery. Because of the rapid growth, it is necessary to 
loosen the wraps frequently to keep them from binding. They 
should not be removed entirely before the buds have developed 
to a length of 6 or 8 inches. The sprouts rising from the upper 
side of the stub form stronger unions with the latter than do 
those from the lower side. 

Cleft-grafting, another method employed in top-working old 



THE AVOCADO 51 

trees, is most successful with seedlings two to four years old, 
but can also be used on older trees. While it has not been 
practiced extensively, it has given good results in the grove of 
W. J. Krome, at Homestead, Florida. Krome has worked out 
the method here described. 

The trees to be grafted should be sawed off 2 to 4 feet from 
the ground, according to size, this work being done during 
November and December in Florida, though it has been success- 
ful as late as March. With two-year-old seedlings the trunk 
itself is sawed off; on larger trees it is well to go above the 
trunk and saw off the main branches a foot from their union 
with the trunk. A cleft is then prepared in the stump, not by 
splitting it with a grafting tool as is usually done with fruit- 
trees in the North, but by using a saw. After sawing to a depth 
of 4 to 8 inches, depending on the size of the stub, the saw is 
removed and a soft wooden wedge is inserted in the top of the 
cleft and driven down until the lower end of the cleft begins 
to split. This produces the steady pressure necessary to hold 
the cion firmly in place. 

Cions are cut from wood of larger size and more mature growth 
than is used for budding, branches about ^ inch in diameter 
being preferable. The cion, which should be 6 to 9 inches long, 
is trimmed on two sides throughout the lower half to a slender 
tapering point at the bottom. It is then placed in position in 
the cleft and forced downward until the upper end of the cut 
surface is flush with the top of the stub. One cion is placed in 
the cleft at each side of the stub, nearly even with the surface 
of the bark on the outside. The wedge which has been used 
to keep the cleft open is now partly withdrawn until the cions 
are clamped firmly by the pressure of the two halves of the 
stub, when it is sawed off flush with the top of the stub and 
allowed to remain in place so that the pressure on the cions 
will not become too great. 

After the cions are properly placed, the cleft is filled with 



52 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

plastic grafting-wax so that air is excluded. Wax is also rubbed 
over the outside of the cion where it fits into the stub. The 
stub is then firmly wound with strips of waxed cloth, covering 
the top as well as the sides. A collar made of builder's paper 
is then tied around the stub, extending an inch above the tops 
of the cions. This collar is filled with sand. Particular atten- 
tion must be given to insuring a layer of sand between the cions 
and the side of the collar, since otherwise the latter transmits 
heat from the outside and kills the cions. Vent holes should 
be made in the paper near the top of the stub to drain off the 
water which collects within the cup. 

Nothing more remains to be done until the cions have had 
time to unite with the stock. Two or three months after growth 
has commenced the sand may be removed and the collar taken 
off. As a rule, only the stronger of the two cions develops. 
Both may start to grow but one eventually outstrips the other 
in most cases, and the weaker one succumbs. 

This method appears to produce vigorous trees. Its use has 
been attended by excellent results at Homestead. 

The Ceop 

The age at which budded avocado trees come into bearing 
varies with the different races, and also among the varieties 
of the same race. Furthermore, experience indicates that 
many kinds will bear at an earlier age on the sandy soils of 
southern Florida than on the heavier lands of California. In 
the latter state, budded trees of the Mexican race frequently 
come into bearing the second or third year after they are planted 
in the orchard ; the Guatemalan race shows greater range among 
the numerous varieties, some, for example the Lyon, commenc- 
ing to bear within eighteen months or two years from the time 
of budding, while others, for example Taft, have not borne 
earlier than the fourth or fifth year. Trapp and several other 



THE AVOCADO 53 

West Indian varieties have been grown for four or five years in 
southern California without bearing fruit. They are sometimes 
injured by cold, but, allowing for setbacks from this cause, the 
West Indian race does not fruit so early in California as in 
Florida. The Mexican race usually fruits at an early age in 
both regions. 

As a rule, budded trees of the West Indian race are precocious 
in Florida. Trapp is remarkable in this respect; and in 
addition it has a strong tendency toward over-production which 
must be checked during the first few years by thinning the 
fruit. Trapp trees will often produce a few fruits the year after 
they are planted in the orchard, and at three years from planting 
may begin to yield commercial crops. If grown under irrigation, 
so that their development has been rapid, the trees may be 
allowed to carry thirty or forty fruits the third year after 
planting, but during the first year it is best to remove all 
fruits, and the second year not more than half a dozen should 
be allowed to mature. When grown without irrigation, the 
tree is rarely large enough at three years of age to carry more 
than twelve or eighteen fruits without injury to itself, unless 
soil conditions have been very favorable. The mistake is 
often made of allowing Trapps to over-bear when young, with 
the result that they die back following the fruiting season. 

Seedlings vary even more than budded trees in the age at 
which they begin fruiting. The Mexican race often fruits at 
two or three years from seed. The Guatemalan race, in Cali- 
fornia, has occasionally fruited at three or four years, but more 
commonly comes into bearing at six or seven years. The West 
Indian race, in Florida, does not usually come into bearing 
earlier than five or six years from seed. 

In California, no figures showing the yield of a budded orchard 
have as yet been obtained, but in Florida, where the avocado 
industry is older, interesting data are available. While the 
figures given may not apply to both regions and will certainly 



54 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

vary greatly with different sorts, they serve at least to show 
what may be expected from one variety under certain conditions. 

According to George B. Cellon, a Trapp tree seven to ten 
years old will yield, under good cultural treatment, between 
five and ten crates of fruit, counting forty fruits to the crate, 
which is about the average pack. The returns from one of the 
largest groves near Miami for two seasons, however, show an 
average of only one and one-half crates to a tree. This is a 
low yield, and should certainly be exceeded. Krome, who has 
kept careful crop records, finds that his Trapp trees at five 
years of age yield one to four crates a tree, two and a half 
crates being the average. Charles Montgomery of Buena 
Vista, Florida, has obtained yields of about the same amount, 
his estimate being that a mature Trapp grove should produce 
500 crates to the acre. 

The yield of other varieties in Florida is not so well known, 
since none except Pollock has been planted to any extent, and 
even this variety is grown in comparatively small numbers. 
In regularity of bearing Trapp excels Pollock, the latter showing 
a tendency to fruit in alternate years. 

In Guatemala and Mexico, many seedling trees of the 
Guatemalan race tend to produce good crops only in alternate 
years. The feature is not so marked in trees of the West 
Indian race which have been observed, nor in those of the 
Mexican ; nor is it true that all Guatemalans possess it. It is 
possible that over-production one season results in a crop 
failure the following one, and it is probable that unfavorable 
cultural conditions have something to do with the matter. 

Season 

The season during which avocados are obtainable in southern. 
Florida has been, until very recently, from July until January. 
A few Trapps may hang on until February or even as late as 



THE AVOCADO 55 

March, but the fruit is so scarce after the early part of January 
that it need scarcely be reckoned with. The earliest varieties 
of the West Indian race begin to ripen in July, while the bulk of 
the seedling crop matures in August and September. During 
this season avocados are cheap, and the markets of the North 
are receiving shipments from Cuba, but there is a certain demand 
for high-class fruit even during the summer, and such varieties 
as Pollock are profitably grown in a small way. It has always 
been recognized, however, that the most profitable avocados 
are those which can be marketed in winter, for not only is the 
cheap seedling fruit out of the way at that time, but the markets 
of the North are not filled to overflowing with peaches, 
plums, grapes, and other standard fruits. 

It is, therefore, the late Trapps which have been the most 
profitable in Florida, and the constant search has been for even 
later varieties which would make it possible to supply the 
markets during late winter and early spring. Such have not 
been found among those of the West Indian race, but the Guate- 
malan meets this demand, and varieties of this race will, in 
all probability, soon be planted extensively in Florida. The 
Guatemalan kinds which have already fruited at Miami and 
elsewhere have served to indicate that the season during which 
this race will ripen is, roughly speaking, November to May. 

In California a given variety of the Guatemalan race ripens 
one to two months later than in Florida, so far as present 
experience goes. The season of this race in California extends 
from January or February, when the earliest sorts appear in the 
market, to autumn. Following the Guatemalans, the Mexican 
varieties mature, their season in general being October to 
January, although there are some kinds which mature a few 
fruits in spring. Thus it can be said that there is never a day 
when, ripe avocados are not obtainable in California. 

While the Mexican race has received little attention in 
Florida, it seems likely to become of considerable value for the 



56 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

cooler sections of the state, now that varieties of good size and 
quality are obtainable. Chappelow has been in bearing at 
Miami for some years, maturing there in June and July, which 
is considerably earlier than in California. 

In Cuba it is said that trees growing on dry soils will hold 
their fruits longer than those growing on low moist land. 
Occasional seedling trees (West Indian race) are found through- 
out Cuba which have the reputation of carrying their fruits 
until Christmas or even later. Such trees are, of course, 
highly profitable to their owners, since avocados are in great 
demand in Habana during the winter months, and the supply 
at present is limited. 

Picking, Packing, and Marketing 

Avocados are picked best with orange clippers. The stem is 
usually swollen just above the point of attachment with the 
fruit; it should be severed with the clippers immediately 
above this swollen portion. In order to supply the early 
markets, avocados are sometimes picked before they are fully 
mature, a custom which should be discouraged. Immature 
fruits are certain to be inferior in flavor, and should they fall 
into the hands of those who were trying the avocado for the first 
time they would be certain to give a bad impression. Trapps 
are usually left on the tree as long as possible, in order to obtain 
the high prices which late fruit commands; when they begin 
to change from bright green to yellowish green they must be 
picked or they will drop. If they are picked only a day or two 
before they would drop, they are sure to ripen in transit and 
reach the market in an over-ripe condition. To prevent this, 
Cellon advises that questionable fruits be laid aside for twenty- 
four hours ; if at the end of this time they are still firm, they 
may safely be packed for shipment. 

The standard package for avocados in southern Florida is the 



THE AVOCADO 57 

tomato crate, which measures about 12 X 12 X 24 inches. 
It is sometimes used with a partition in the center, sometimes 
without. Excelsior is placed above and below each layer of 
fruits as a cushion, and is stuffed around them freely to hold 
them in place and prevent bruising. Some growers wrap each 
fruit in tissue-paper, but the wisdom of this practice is doubtful. 
The fruits heat more quickly when wrapped, and as heating 
greatly hastens the ripening process it should be avoided as 
much as possible. Avocados must not be packed under such 
great pressure as oranges, more care being necessary in nailing 
on the top of the crate to avoid crushing the fruits. 

The number of fruits to a crate varies from twenty-three to 
fifty-four with Trapp, the average being about forty. Pollocks 
run from eighteen to thirty-six to a crate, while seedlings run 
from twenty-eight to ninety. Quotations, f. o. b. southern 
Florida, are sometimes made by crate, sometimes by dozen 
fruits. The following figures on Trapps are those quoted by 
one of the principal shippers at Miami during the past several 
years : 

First week in October, 54s (that is, fruits which pack 54 to 
the crate), 75 cents a dozen ; 50s, 85 cents ; 46s, $1 ; 36s, SI. 30 ; 
28s, $1.75; 23s, $2. After November first the price is in- 
creased on all sizes, as follows: 50s, $1.50 a dozen; 46s, $2; 
36s, $3. At Thanksgiving the prices vary from $3 to $4 a 
dozen for 24s, 36s, and 46s, and about Christmas they advance 
to $4 to $6 a dozen. 

Pollocks are quoted during August as follows : 36s, 75 cents 
a dozen; 28s, $1; 24s, $1.50; 18s, $2. The quotations on 
high-grade seedling fruits at the same time are as follows : 
50s to 60s, 60 cents a dozen; 46s, 75 cents; 36s, $1 ; 28s, $1.50. 

Prices on Trapps a crate vary from about $2 in early October 
to as high as $36 for the last few crates at the end of the season 
in February ; these figures are f . o. b. southern Florida. From 
one of the principal groves near Miami the entire crop has been 



58 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

marketed for several years at an average net price of $5.25 a 
crate averaging forty fruits. The average return from 1400 
crates shipped from another grove was S5.50 a crate. 

Trapps have been shipped from southern Florida to all parts 
of the United States. A few years ago one grower sent small 
consignments every day during a large part of the season to 
Seattle, Washington, and did not receive a complaint of a 
crate received in bad order. These shipments were on the 
road eight days, and were not sent in cold storage. It is the 
general practice to ship from Florida by express. The shipping 
qualities of Trapp are much better than those of the average 
seedling. 

At present most of the Florida Trapp crop goes to the 
markets of the eastern United States, Washington, Philadel- 
phia, New York, and Boston each taking a good share. Some 
growers have shipped heavily to Chicago and other points in 
the Middle West, and small shipments go to the Pacific Coast 
each year. 

The production in California has not yet become great 
enough to permit of commercial shipments to eastern markets, 
the crop being consumed locally. Since most of the returns up 
to the present time are based on the crop from the parent 
seedling tree of each variety, they are of little value to showthe 
probable profits from a budded orchard of the same sort. The 
most remarkable record which has been made by a commercial 
planting of budded trees is that of J. T. Whedon at Yorba 
Linda. Whedon's planting of the Fuerte variety, containing 
fifty trees (less than one acre), produced a crop of fruit when 
five years old which sold for $1700. 

Pests and Diseases 

In the early stages of many horticultural industries insect 
pests and fungous diseases are not troublesome, but as the 



THE AVOCADO 59 

industry develops its enemies become more numerous. So it 
has been with the avocado. During the first few years in which 
this fruit was planted commercially in Florida little injury was 
caused by parasites, but recently it has been necessary to com- 
bat vigorously the insects which prey on the tree, and also 
several fungous diseases. 

In California the avocado has, up to the present, been com- 
paratively free from the attacks of insect and fungous pests; 
yet several insects have made their appearance in the orchards 
and must be watched carefully lest they become so numerous 
as to cause serious harm. 

Thrips and red-spider are the most common insects which 
attack the avocado in Florida. Red-banded thrips (Heliothrips 
ruhrocinctus Giard.) and the greenhouse thrips {Heliothrips 
hoomorrhoidalis Bouche) feed on the foliage, sometimes causing 
much damage. Both these species are exceedingly small, 
soft-bodied, fringed-winged insects, with piercing mouth-parts 
by means of which they puncture the epidermis and extract the 
juices from the leaves. They are most destructive in early 
spring, their numbers being greatly reduced when the summer 
rains commence. Spraying with nicotine solutions has been 
quite effective in controlling them. 

The red-spider {Tetranychus mytilaspidis Riley) also does 
considerable damage during the spring months. This insect, 
which is scarcely larger than a pin point, can be detected on the 
foliage without the aid of a magnifying glass because of its 
bright red color. It feeds on the avocado by piercing the leaf 
tissues and extracting the plant juices. Often it becomes so ' 
abundant as to cause the leaves to assume a brownish, sickly 
appearance. It occurs commonly in California as well as 
in Florida, but has not yet been reported as attacking avocados 
in California. Lime-sulfur mixtures have been used success- 
fully in combating this insect. For citrus trees, H. L. Quayle 
recommends commercial lime-sulfur, dry sulfur and hydrated 



60 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



lime, and distillate emulsion. These may all prove to be 
effective with the avocado as well. 

Among the scale insects which commonly attack the avocadoi 
the most important are the black scale (Saissetia olece Bern.)^ 
and a soft white scale (Puhinaria pyriformis CklL), the latter 
being a serious pest in Florida. Severe infestations of the black 
scale are occasionally found on old seedling trees in California, 
but this insect has not yet become a pest in the young avocado 
groves of that state. The wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis 
Comst.) is occasionally found on avocados in Florida, but rarely 
requires combative measures. All of these scale insects, as 
well as a white fly {Trialeur odes floridensis Quaint.), which has 
become troublesome on some of the Florida Keys, can probably 
be controlled by the use of oil sprays. 

The citrus mealy-bug (Pseudococcus citri Risso) has been 
reported on the avocado in Ventura County, California, but it 
is not known to have caused extensive damage. The avocado 
mealy-bug {Pseudococcus nipce Mask.), which is a serious pest 
in Hawaii, has been found in southern Florida groves. It 
sometimes becomes very troublesome. D. F. Fullaway of 
Hawaii recommends that it be controlled by spraying with oil- 
emulsions. 

The presence of the avocado weevil {Heilipus lauri Boh.) 
in California, where it was probably introduced from Mexico in 
avocado seeds, caused the Federal Horticultural Board to 
prohibit the importation of seeds of the Mexican race from 
Mexico and Central America. This insect is a small black 
beetle which tunnels in the seeds, and is said to do considerable 
damage. 

Other seed weevils attack the avocado in various parts of 
the tropics. H. S. Barber describes the more important ones, 
so far as they are known, in the Proceedings of the Entomological 
Society of Washington, March, 1919. Heilipus pittieri Barber, 
from Costa Rica, is similar to H. lauri. Conotrachelus perseoe 



e 

1 



THE AVOCADO 61 

Barber does great damage to avocados in Guatemala. Its larvae 
have been found in avocado seeds sent to the United States, 
but it is believed the species has not become established in this 
country. Once thoroughly established, the seed weevils are 
difficult to exterminate, hence it is to be hoped that they will 
not gain a foothold in this country. 

In Guatemala, Trioza koehelei Kirkaldy (and perhaps other 
species) produces leaf-galls on the avocado, often in such great 
numbers as seriously to afTect the health of the tree. 

In addition to these insects, a number of others have been 
reported as attacking the avocado in various parts of the tropics. 
These include numerous scale insects, both armored and un- 
armored, several borers, and the well-known Mediterranean 
fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) ; the better-known species 
are listed in the Manual of Dangerous Insects published by the 
Department of Agriculture. 

In the dry climate of California, fungous parasites give the 
avocado grower comparatively little trouble, but in Florida 
and in many parts of the tropics they may require stringent 
combative measures. 

The following extracts from a paper by H. E. Stevens, pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural 
Society for 1918, cover the situation as regards fungous pests 
in Florida as it exists at the present time : 

"Leaves and frequently fruits of the avocado are attacked by a 
fungus which is probably a species of Gloeosporium. The affected 
leaf is usually attacked at the tip, and the disease gradually spreads 
until the greater part of the blade is involved, when the leaf falls. 
Severe attacks may cause considerable defoliation of trees and result 
in the death of young terminal twigs. Fruits may be attacked when 
small, in which case severe shedding may follow. If the more mature 
fruits are attacked, a brown spotting is produced and the skin may crack. 

"Another common type of injury, frequently noted on the fruits, 
is referred to as anthracnose by some of the growers. This type of 
injury is very similar to melanose of citrus fruits in general appearance. 
It is superficial and appears in the form of dark reddish brown caked 



62 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

masses on the surface of affected fruits. The markings are hard, 
compact, and the surface is cracked or broken. The injury may 
cover only a part or the whole surface of the fruit. It makes an un- 
sightly fruit, but apparently does not affect the quality. The disease 
is apparently caused by a fungus, perhaps a Gloeosporium or a closely 
related species. 

"Another fungus, a species of CoUetotrichum, is often observed in 
diseased spots on leaves and fruits. This fungus is closely related to 
Gloeosporium and the injuries with which it is associated resemble those 
caused by the latter fungus. It is probably the cause of some of the 
injuries that are classed as anthracnose. 

"In the control of these leaf and fruit spots, Bordeaux mixture 
has given satisfactory results where applied in time. As soon as the 
injuries begin to appear, spraying should be made and continued until 
the disease is checked. Two or three applications may be necessary, 
made at intervals of two or three weeks. If the fruit is near maturity, 
it is advisable to substitute ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate 
for the Bordeaux mixture, to prevent any disagreeable stain that may 
result from the use of the latter. Aside from spraying, all dead wood 
should be kept out of the trees, as this is likely to harbor these fungi 
from one season to the next. 

"Avocado scab is of more than ordinary interest, owing to its close 
connection with citrus scab, and the fact that it has come into existence 
within the past three or four years. It is in aU respects a new disease 
that has had its beginning in Florida. 

" Scab is chiefly a disease of the tender growth, and at present 
it is found more abundantly in the nurseries, where it is particularly 
severe on seedling plants. It also attacks budded varieties in the 
nursery. The disease has been found on young and old bearing trees 
in the groves, affecting the leaves, and in a few cases the injury was 
observed on fruits. At present it is more common in the nurseries, 
but it may soon prove a serious pest in the groves. 

"Scab forms definite spots or patches on the young, tender leaves 
and shoots, and severe attacks may cause the foliage to curl or become 
distorted. The more mature leaf tissue is not affected, but old leaves 
will be found bearing spots that were formed when the tissue was 
young. The spots are usually small, »raised, circula^r to irregular, 
purplish brown to dark in color, and may vary from a sixteenth to an 
eighth of an inch in diameter. They may appear scattered over the 
surface, or several' may grow together, forming irregular patches. 
The spots penetrate the leaf tissue, and they are visible on both sides. 
They are usually more prominent on the upper surface of the leaf, in 
which case the under surface of the spot will be slightly bulged and 
marked by a discolored area. The centers of the spots are composed of 
dead cells, more or less spongy in character and brownish in color. 



THE AVOCADO 63 

In the earlier stages the surfaces may show a fuzzy, whitish growth — 
the fruiting parts of the fungus. The surfaces of older spots are darker 
in color and frequently covered with a dark webby fungous growth.' 
On young shoots and twigs the spots appear more elevated, small, 
oval, dark purplish brown to black, and have comparatively smooth 
surfaces. This same type of spot is observed on the fruits. 

"It is plainly evident that the avocado scab fungus is none other 
than Cladosporinm citri, which causes citrus scab. The two fungi 
agree in structure and growth habits, and both are parasitic on citrus. 

"Only tentative control measures for avocado scab can be sug- 
gested at the present time. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture for the 
disease in the nursery has given good results in some cases, in others 
less satisfactory. If the new growth can be protected while it is 
putting out, the disease may largely be avoided. The sprayings 
should be made when the foliage begins to put out, and continued until 
the leaves are nearly developed. The 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture may 
be applied at intervals of ten days or two weeks, or often enough to 
keep the young foliage well protected. The fungus develops more 
rapidly diu-ing cool weather where moist conditions are provided. 
Shade and a crowded condition of the trees also seem to favor the 
development of the scab." 

Many growers in southern Florida who have planted the 
Trapp avocado have been troubled by the trees dying back 
following the production of a heavy crop of fruit. Krome 
of Homestead has given this subject much study, and writes 
as follows regarding it in the 1916 Report of the California 
Avocado Association : 

"Avocado trees of the West Indian race, when in good condition of 
growth, are prone to put on a tremendous bloom from which a setting 
of fruit is apt to result so heavy as to be entirely beyond the carrying 
capacity of the tree. Following this abnormal effort there is often a 
period of apparent exhaustion during which the tree seems to realize 
that it has 'bitten off more than it can chew,' and to be seeking the 
best method to recoup from its over exertion. This is a critical time 
in the life history of the tree and calls for intelligent handling on the 
part of the grower. If left to its own devices the tree will endeavor 
to carry the over crop, draining upon its reserves until its vitality has 
been seriously impaired. Evidences of this condition are usually very 
apparent. The tree drops a large portion of its leaves, the younger 
branches change in color from a dark green to a saffron yellow and no 
new growth is put on. Lack of sufficient foliage to provide proper 



64 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

shade often results in serious sunburning of the more tender branches, 
and the low state of vitaUty lays the tree particularly liable to the 
inroads of disease, especially of the anthracnose fungus which seldom 
loses such an opportunity for making an attack. Finally the tree is 
compelled to drop practically its entire crop of fruit and is left in a 
condition which means, at the very best, a set-back of two seasons in 
its development and not infrequently results iij its actual death. 

"To obviate overblooming, particularly in the case of young trees, 
is very difl&cult, for the better the cultural condition of the tree, the 
more likely this is to occur. The usual procedure has been to thin 
the oyer crop of fruit and this method of handling works quite satis- 
factorily provided the set-back to the tree has not already been brought 
about through the excessive bloom. However, the avocado requires 
a longer period than most fruits between the first appearance of the 
bloom and the setting of the fruit and it often happens that the damage 
to the tree has made considerable advance before relief by stripping 
can be obtained. In this event removal of the entire crop and further 
careful attention is necessary. 

" In an effort to overcome this difficulty, I have during the past two 
seasons resorted to frequent applications of fertilizer, in order to offset 
the heavy drain upon the vitality of the trees during the blooming 
period. In the spring of 1916, following a season favorable to growth, 
the avocado trees at Medora Grove began to bloom about the middle 
of March. Immediately, afterward a light application of fertilizer, 
carrying ammoniates from readily available sources was made. The 
bloom was the heaviest known in a number of years and persisted until 
a,bout the middle of April. Between April 15th and 20th, another 
light application of the same fertilizer was made and this was followed 
by a third application the latter part of May, when a fertilizer some- 
what higher in phosphoric acid, largely derived from low grade tank- 
age, was used. As a result of this treatment a full crop of fruit was 
set and in most cases carried through to maturity without damage to 
the trees. When an over crop was set at first, as a rule dropping took 
place without a reduction in vitality, until the proper carrying capacity 
had been reached, and the remainder of the crop was matured. In a 
few eases stripping was necessary, but among nearly two thousand 
trees of varying ages, not more than eight or ten showed any appre- 
ciable damage." 

In both California and Florida, avocados sometimes crack 
open while hanging on the tree. This has occurred in varieties 
of the Guatemalan and Mexican races, but is most common in 
the latter. The cracks are usually situated towards the apex 



THE AVOCADO 65 

of the fruit, and are often very extensive. W. R. Home, H. S. 
Fawcett, and others have noted the presence of several fungi 
in the cracks and the flesh beneath them, but up to the present 
it is believed that these fungi are secondary, and not the cause 
of cracking. 

Races and Varieties 

The avocados cultivated in the United States are classified 
horticulturally in three races : the West Indian, the Guate- 
malan, and the Mexican. The West Indian and Guatemalan 
races, so far as can be judged at present, are two expressions of 
one botanical species, Persea aviericana, while the Mexican 
race represents a distinct species, Persea drymifolia. 

Horticultural varieties of the avocado, when propagated 
from seed, do not reproduce the parent fruit in every detail. 
Seedlings from a round green fruit of the West Indian race may 
produce fruits oblong or pyriform in shape, and red or purple 
in color, varying from the parent in numerous other ways as 
well. But these seedlings will always be like their parents in 
certain respects, because they belong to the same race and will 
reproduce the racial even though not the individual char- 
acteristics. 

To use the definition of H. J. Webber,^ "Races are groups of 
cultivated plants that have well-marked differentiating char- 
acters, and propagate true to seed except for simple fluctuating 
variations." Technically speaking, the Mexican avocados 
should not be called a race, since they really represent a species ; 
the West Indian and the Guatemalan, however, do not appear 
to differ from each other except in minor characters. 

The classification of avocados into these three races has been 
useful, inasmuch as it brings together all those varieties which 
have several characteristics in common. In fact, the mere 

1 In the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 



66 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

statement that an avocado belongs to the West Indian, Guate- 
malan, or Mexican race gives one an idea of the relative hardi- 
ness, season of ripening, and commercial character of the fruit. 
The botanical standing of the cultivated races, as at present 
understood, and the characters which serve to distinguish 
them horticulturally, are shown in the following key: 

1. Leaves anise-seented ; skin of fruit thin (rarely more than -^^ 

inch in thickness) Persea drymifolia 

Mexican Race of horticulture 

2. Leaves not anise-scented; skin of fruit thicker (from ^ to J 

inch in thickness) Persea americana 

a. Fruit summer and fall ripening; skin usually not 

more than tV inch thick, leathery in texture. 

West Indian Race 

b. Fruit winter and spring ripening; skin t\ to | inch 

thick, woody in texture. 
Guatemalan Race 

One variety cultivated in the United States, the Fuerte, 
appears to be a hybrid between the Mexican and Guatemalan 
races. Others of similar origin are likely to appear at any 
time, hence it is desirable to establish' a group to include 
hybrids. 

The avocados of the West Indian race have been developed 
in the tropical lowlands; the Guatemalan race, on the other 
hand, is a product of the highlands. At intermediate eleva- 
tions varieties appear which belong to neither of these races, 
but possess some of the characters of each. These intermediate 
forms cannot be classified with accuracy. 

In selecting varieties for commercial planting, it must be 
borne in mind, first of all, that the tree must be vigorous and 
hardy enough to grow successfully in the particular location 
which the planter has in view. Secondly, it must in time pro- 
duce sufficiently large crops of marketable fruit to make its 
culture commercially profitable. It is not necessary that it 



.THE AVOCADO 67 

be very precocious; it is noticeable, in fact, that precocious 
varieties often fail to make vigorous trees. It is more desirable 
to have the tree devote itself during the first three years to 
the development of an extensive root-system and a well- 
branched crown capable of withstanding the drain imposed by 
the production of heavy crops of fruit than to have its growth 
limited and its vitality exhausted by premature fruiting. 
Thirdly, the fruit itself must be given consideration from a 
commercial standpoint. Attractiveness, flavor, shipping qual- 
ities, season, and other important characteristics should be 
considered in respect to the market it is proposed to supply. 
Naturally, good shipping quality can be sacrificed to some 
other point if the fruit is for local use, while it is essential if the 
fruit is destined for distant markets. The flavor and quality 
of the flesh should be as good as possible, and the seed should 
not be unduly large. 

More than one hundred and fifty varieties have been propa- 
gated in the United States up to the present time. The larger 
part of these originated as seedlings in California and Florida ; 
the remainder have been introduced from Mexico, Guatemala, 
Cuba, the Bahamas, Hawaii, and a few other regions. 

Of this large number not more than a dozen are likely to be 
planted ten years hence. Indeed, most of them have already 
been discarded. New varieties are originating every year, 
however, and the introduction of promising sorts from foreign 
countries is receiving much attention. It is only by testing a 
large number of varieties from all of the important avocado 
regions of the tropics that the best available kinds for commer- 
cial cultivation can be obtained. 

It is not desirable to burden such a work as this with descrip- 
tions of all the avocados which have been propagated. It is 
sufficient to include the more important ones which are at the 
present time being planted commercially. For descriptions 
of minor varieties, and for information regarding the behavior 



68 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

and value of new introductions, the reader is referred to the 
annual reports of the California Avocado Association. In 1917 
this organization issued Circular No. 1, "Avocado Varieties 
Recommended for Planting in California," the suggestions con- 
tained in which have done much to eliminate from considera- 
tion numerous inferior sorts. The varieties recommended in 
this circular are as follows, the arrangement being according 
to season of ripening in California : 

Spring varieties 

Fuerte, Spinks, Blakeman, and Lyon 
Summer varieties 

Spinks, Blakeman, Lyon, Dickinson, and Taft 
Fall varieties 

Taft, Dickinson, and Sharpless 
Winter varieties 

Sharpless, Puebla, and Fuerte 

Several of these varieties may be superseded within a short 
time by others which are now being tested in California. It 
is not to be expected that the industry can settle down to 
the cultivation of a few standard sorts until all of the 
promising ones have been tested, and this may require several 
years. 

In Florida, the only variety which was extensively planted 
during the first fifteen years of the industry was Trapp. With 
the introduction of the Guatemalans, however, the question 
has become more complicated, and it will take some time to 
determine by actual trial which members of this race are most 
suitable for cultivation in different parts of the state. 

It is probable that varieties will be obtained which will 
make it possible, both in California and Florida, to market 
avocados in every month of the year. Indeed, it is almost 
possible to do so at the present time. In other regions horti- 
culturists should work toward this end by obtaining for trial 
varieties ripening at different seasons. 





^%-l 



THE AVOCADO 69 

West Indian race. 

This race is the predominant one in the West Indies and 
throughout the low-lying portions of the tropical American 
mainland. It is found as far north as Florida and the Bahama 
Islands, and as far south as central Brazil. From its home in 
America it has been carried to Madeira, the Canary Islands, parts 
of tropical Africa, Oceania, and the Indo-Malayan Archipelago. 
It is much more widely disseminated than either of the other races. 
The name South American race is sometimes applied to it, while 
P. H. Rolfs ^ termed it the West Indian-South American. 

Practically all of the avocados cultivated in Florida previous 
to the introduction of the Guatemalan were of this race. In 
California it has never been extensively grown; only a few 
trees, in fact, are known to have fruited in that state. It is 
the most susceptible to frost of the three races, and is best 
suited to cultivation at low elevations in the tropics. 

The foliage of the West Indian race lacks the anise-like scent 
which characterizes the Mexican; in general, it resembles the 
foliage of the Guatemalan closely, but often the young branch- 
lets and the leaves are lighter in color. The fruits are pro- 
duced on short stems; the smallest weigh 4 or 5 ounces, the 
largest 3 pounds or more. The surface is nearly always 
smooth, yellow-green to maroon in color, the skin rarely more 
than Y6 inch thick, pliable and leathery in texture. The seed 
is usually large in proportion to the size of the fruit, and often 
loose in the seed cavity. The cotyledons are often rough on 
the surface, with the two seed-coats frequently thick and 
separated, at least over the pointed end of the seed, one of the 
coats sometimes adhering to the cotyledons and the other to 
the wall of the seed cavity. The flowers are characterized by 
less pubescence than those of the Mexican race, but are very 
similar to those of the Guatemalan ; sometimes they are almost 

1 Bull. 61, U. S. Dspt. Agr. 



70 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

devoid of pubescence. The flowering season is from February 
to March in Florida, the fruit maturing from July to November, 
in certain varieties sometimes remaining on the tree until 
December or January. 




Fig. 4. The Pollock 
avocado. (X 3^5) 



Pollock (Fig. 4). — Form obovate to oblong-pjTif orm ; size very 
large to extremely large, weight commonly 25 to 35 ounces, but occa- 
sionally attaining to 50 ounces, length 62 to 7i 
inches, greatest breadth 4 to 5 inches ; base nar- 
row, flattened slightly, with the short stem inserted 
obliquely in a shallow, flaring, regular cavity ; apex 
obliquely flattened or slightly depressed; surface 
smooth, light yellowish green in color, with numer- 
ous small greenish yellow or russet dots ; skin less 
than Jg inch thick, separating very readily from the 
flesh, tough and leathery ; flesh firm, smooth and 
fine in texture, deep yellow changing to yellowish 
green close to the skin, almost without a trace of 
fiber discoloration; flavor rich, rather dry, very 
pleasant ; quality excellent ; seed conic, oblique at 
base, rather smaU, weighing about 4 ounces, usually 
fitting snugly in the cavity but sometimes loose, 
the seed-coats rather loose, more or less separate ; 
season August and September at Miami, Florida. 
Originated at Miami, Florida; first propagated in 1901. It has 
been planted more extensively than any other West Indian variety 

except Trapp. It is remarkable for 

its large size and excellent quality. 

Trapp (Fig. 5). — Form roundish 
oblate, obliquely flattened at the 
apex ; size large to very large, weight 
16 to 24 ounces, length 4 to 4^ inches, 
greatest breadth 4J to 4| inches ; base 
narrowing slightly, flattened around 
the deep, narrow, rounded, regular 
cavity in which the short stem is in- 
serted ; apex obliquely flattened ; sur- 
face smooth to undulating or slightly 
pitted, pale yellow-green in color, 
with numerous small to medium 
sized, irregular, pale greenish yellow 
dots ; skin x^ inch thick, separating very readily from the flesh, firm, 
leathery and pliable ; flesh firm, very smooth, rich cream-yellow, chang- 
ing to pale green near the skin, fiber discoloration very slight ; flavor 




Fig. 5. The Trapp avocado. ( Xf ) 



THE AVOCADO 71 

moderately ricli, pleasant, quality good; seed broadly oblate, large, 
about 5 ounces in weight, nearly tight in the cavity, with the seed-coats 
adhering more or less closely to the cotyledons or sometimes to the 
lining of the cavity. Season commencing in late September or October 
at Miami, Florida, and extending until the end of December, with a 
few fruits hanging on until the end of February or March. 

Originated at Coconut Grove, Florida; first propagated in 1901. 
An unusually late variety, and for this reason valuable. It was the 
only avocado planted extensively in Florida previous to the introduction 
of the Guatemalans. The tree is very productive, but is a weak grower 
and susceptible to frost. 

Waldin. — Form oblong to oblong-pyrif orm ; size large to very 
large, weight 18 to 28 ounces, length 5 to 6^ inches, greatest breadth 
3f to 4| inches ; base somewhat narrowed with the rather short thick 
stem inserted squarely ; apex slightly flattened ; surface smooth, 
usually without markings ; skin J^ inch thick, separating readily 
from the flesh, tough and leathery in texture ; flesh firm, deep yellow 
in color, smooth, with very little trace of fiber ; flavor rich and pleas- 
ant ; quality excellent ; seed obovate, rather large, weighing about 
5 ounces, usually tight in the cavity. Season October until early 
January at Homestead, Florida. 

Originated near Homestead, Florida; first propagated in 1915. 
The tree is a strong grower, productive, and more resistant to cold 
and to fungous diseases than the average variety of its race. Valu- 
able on account of its lateness in ripening, and the good quality of its 
fruits. 



Guatemalan race. 

Although planted in California as early as 1885, the Guate- 
malan race did not begin to attract attention until about 1910. 
With the increase of interest in avocado culture which had 
its inception in California about that time, a number of 
fruiting trees were brought to light, most of them grown 
from seed introduced about 1900 by John Murrieta of Los 
Angeles, although the first tree was planted by Jacob Miller 
at Hollywood. Because of the excellent commercial qualities 
of the fruits produced by these seedlings and the season at which 
they ripened, several of them were propagated and named as 
horticultural varieties. The number has now increased, both 
through the fruiting of seedlings locally and the introduction of 



72 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

selected varieties from southern Mexico and Guatemala, 
especially from the vicinity of Atlixco, Puebla, Mexico, which 
was the source of most of the seeds introduced by Murrieta 
and has since furnished bud wood of many choice varieties. 

In Florida this race came into notice even later than in 
California. Several trees grown from seeds sent from Guate- 
mala by G. N. Collins about 1901 came into bearing at the 
Miami Plant Introduction Garden in 1911-1912, and their 
season of ripening, February to April, immediately stimulated 
interest in this race, since a winter-ripening avocado had been 
the greatest desideratum of Florida growers. Budwood of 
practically all the varieties growing in California was obtained, 
and the first offspring of these came into bearing at Miami in 
1915. While it can thus be seen that the Guatemalan race is 
new to Florida, it promises to become of great commercial 
value, and it has the decided advantage that its culture will be 
possible farther north than that of the West Indian race. 
Up to the present the trees are successful under Florida condi- 
tions. The varieties that have so far fruited ripen from October 
to May. 

In other countries the distribution of this race is limited. 
It was introduced into Hawaii in 1885, and has recently begun 
to attract attention in that territory. Lately it has been 
planted in Cuba, where it promises to be successful. It has 
also been introduced into Porto Rico and a few other regions, 
but only within the last few years. 

The foliage of the Guatemalan race, as of the West Indian, 
lacks the anise-like odor which characterizes the Mexican. It 
is commonly deeper colored than the West Indian, the new 
growth often being deep bronze-red. The fruits, weighing 4 
ounces to more than 3 pounds (commonly 12 to 20 ounces), 
and borne on long stems, are light green to purplish black in 
color. The surface is often rough or warty, especially toward 
the stem end of the fruit. The skin is usually over Yt inch, 



THE AVOCADO 73 

sometimes i inch, thick. This characteristic, together with 
the texture of the surface, is variable, occasional forms being 
found which have the skin scarcely thicker or rougher than in 
the West Indian race. It is usually harder, however, and more 
coarsely granular in character. The seed completely fills the 
cavity. The cotyledons are nearly or quite smooth, the seed- 
coats thin, closely united, and adherent to the cotyledons 
throughout. The flowers, more finely pubescent than in the 
Mexican race, are similar in character to those of the West 
Indian. They appear much later than those of the Mexican 
race, usually beginning to open in late spring, about the time 
those of the West Indian race (in Florida) are setting fruits. 
Unlike both the other races, the fruit does not ripen in the en- 
suing summer, but is carried over into the following autumn, 
winter, or spring; while in California, fruits which develop 
from flowers appearing in June may remain on the tree until a 
year from the following October. The ripening season in general 
is winter and spring in Florida, somewhat later in California, 
where the earliest varieties at present cultivated begin to ripen 
late in January or in February, and the latest ones hang on the 
tree imtil October. 

Blakeman. — Form broad pyriform to obconic, oblique, broad at 
the basal end ; size above medium to very large, weight 14 to 20 
ounces, length 4 to 4| inches, greatest breadth 3\ to 3f inches ; base 
rounded, the long stem inserted obliquely in a very shallow cavity ; 
apex broadly rounded, obliquely flattened or slightly depressed on one 
side, with the stigmatic point raised; surface slightly undulating 
to roughened, but not so rough as in many other Guatemalan varieties, 
dark green with numerous large yellowish or reddish brown dots ; skin 
thick and woody, separating readily from the flesh, brittle, granular ; 
flesh fine-grained, firm, deep cream-yellow in color, tinged with green 
near the skin, free from fiber or discoloration ; fiavor rich, pleasant ; 
quality very good; seed broadly conic, medium sized, fitting tightly 
in the cavity with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season April to 
August at Hollywood, California. 

Originated at Hollywood, California; first propagated in 1912, 
under the provisional names Habersham and Dickey No. 2. 



74 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



Dickinson (Fig. 6). — Form oval to obovate, sometimes almost 
pyriform; size small to medium, weight 9 to 14 ounces, length 3^ 
inches, greatest breadth 2f inches ; base not noticeably flattened, the 
long stem inserted in a very small and shallow cavity ; apex rounded ; 
surface very rough, verrucose or tuberculate around the base, dark 
purple in color with large, irregular, maroon dots ; skin very thick, 
especially near the base, separating fairly readily from the flesh, 
coarsely gi'anular, woody, brittle ; flesh buttery, pale greenish yellow, 
free from fiber, of pleasant flavor ; quality good ; seed roundish oblate, 
medium sized, tight in the cavitj^ with both seed-coats adhering closely. 
Season June to October at Los Angeles, California. 

Originated at Los Angeles, California ; first propagated in 1912. 
Vigorous in growth and precocious in fruiting. 

Lyon. — Form broad pjTiform, indistinctly necked, and some- 
times oblique at the apex ; size above medium 
to large, Aveight 14 to 18 ounces, length about 
5 1 inches, greatest breadth 3^ inches ; base nar- 
row, the long stout stem inserted obliquely al- 
most without depression ; surface undulating 
to rough, bright green in color, with numerous 
small yellowsh or russet dots ; skin moder- 
ately thick, separating very readily from the 
flesh, coarsely granular, brittle ; flesh smooth, 
firm, deep cream colored, tinged with, green 
toward the skin, free from fiber discoloration, 
the flavor very rich and pleasant ; quality very 
good ; seed broad conic, medium small to me- 
diiim in size, fitting tightly in the cavity with 
both seed-coats adhering closely. Season April 
to August at Hollywood, California. 
Originated at Hollywood, California; fii-st propagated in 1911. 
The tree is precocious in bearing, and the fruit is of excellent 
qualitj'. 

SharpJcss. — Form slender pyriform to elongated pjrriform with a 
long neck ; size large to verj^ large, weight 16 to 24 ounces, length 
6 to GJ inches, gi'eatest breadth 3^- inches ; base very narrow, the 
long stem inserted obliquely mthout depression ; apex rounded ; 
surface slightly roughened or pitted, glossj% greenish purple to deep 
purple in color, with numerous yellowish dots ; skin thick, separat- 
ing readily from the flesh, granular and woody ; flesh smooth, firm, 
cream colored, free from fiber discoloration, and of unusually rich 
pleasant flavor ; quality excellent ; seed oblate-oblique, small, weigh- 
ing U ounces, fitting tightly in the cavity, with both seed-coats 




Fig. 6. The Dickinson 
avocado. (X |) 



adhering closely, 
fornia. 



Season October to February at Santa Ana, Call- 



THE AVOCADO 



75 



Originated near Santa Ana, California; first propagated in 1913. 
This is a fruit of fine quality, ripening very late in season. 

Solano. — Form broadly obovate to oval ; size above medium to 
large, weight 16 to 24 ounces, sometimes attaining to 28 ounces, 
length 5| inches, greatest breadth 3| inches ; base rounded, with the 
long stem inserted obliquely without depression ; apex oblique, slightly 
flattened ; surface nearly smooth, somewhat glossy, bright green in 
color with numerous greenish yellow dots ; skin moderately thick, 
separating readily from the flesh, granular ; flesh firm, smooth, yellow- 
ish cream color, greenish near the skin, free from fiber diseolorations 
and of mild pleasant flavor; quality fair; seed broadly conical to 
broadly ovate, small, fitting tightly in the cavity, with both seed-coats 
adhering closely. Season March to May at Los Angeles, California ; 
October to November 15 at Miami, Florida. 

Originated at Hollywood, California ; first 
propagated in 1912. Productive, and a strong 
grower. 

Spinks. — Form broadly obovate, or ob- 
eonic ; size extremely large, weighing from 18 
to 34 ounces, length about 5 inches, greatest 
breadth about 4| inches ; base narrow, rounded, 
with the rather short stout stem inserted almost 
squarely without depression ; apex rounded ; 
surface roughened, warty around the base, dark 
purple in color ; skin thick, separating readily 
from the flesh, woody, granular, brittle ; flesh 
firm, smooth, rich yellow in color, free from 
fiber, and of rich pleasant flavor ; quality very 
good ; seed nearly spherical, small, weighing 3 
ounces, fitting tightly in the cavity with the seed- 
coats adhering closely. Season April to August at Duarte, California. 

Originated at Duarte, California; first propagated in 1915. The 
tree is vigorous and productive, and the fruit of excellent quality. 

Taft (Fig. 7). — Form broad pyriform, slightly necked ; size above 
medium to very large, weight 14 to 24 ounces, length 5 to 5|- inches, 
greatest breadth 3f inches ; base tapering, the long stem inserted 
obliquely without depression ; apex rounded, with the stigmatic point 
raised ; surface undulating to roughened around the base, deep green in 
color, with numerous yellowish dots ; skin thick, separating very 
readily from the flesh, granular, rather pliable ; flesh firm, smooth, 
light yellow in color with no trace of fiber discoloration ; flavor un- 
usually rich and pleasant ; quality excellent ; seed broadly conical, 
medium sized, fitting tightly in the cavity with both seed-coats adhering 
closely. Season May to October in southern California. 

Originated at Orange, California; first propagated in 1912. The 




Fig. 7. The Taft avo- 
cado. (X I) 



76 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

tree is a strong grower but has not proved very frost-resistant in Florida. 
Its bearing habits have not been satisfactory in California, but in 
Florida they promise to be better. 

Taylor. — Form pjrriform to obovate ; size medium to large, weight 
12 to 18 ounces, length 4 to 4^ inches, greatest breadth 3i inches ; 
base tapering, usually not distinctly necked, the long stem inserted 
obliquely almost without depression ; apex rounded ; surface undulat- 
ing to rough, dull green in color, with numerous small yellowish dots ; 
skin Jg inch thick, separating readily from the flesh, granular and 
woody ; flesh firm, smooth, yellowish cream color, pale green near the 
skin, free from fiber, and of fairly rich pleasant flavor ; quality very 
good ; seed cpnical, medium sized, tight in the cavity with both seed- 
coats adhering closely. Season January 15 to April 1 , at Miami, Florida. 

Originated at Miami, Florida ; flrst propagated in 1914. This 
variety has been planted only in Florida, where it has proved to be 
vigorous and reasonably productive. 



Mexican race. 

This race, which embraces the hardiest avocados cultivated 
in the United States, is particularly valuable for regions too 
cold for the West Indian and Guatemalan varieties. It is 
extensively cultivated in the highlands of central and northern 
Mexico, whence seeds have been brought to California, re- 
sulting in numerous seedling trees scattered throughout the 
southern half of the state. In Florida it has never become 
popular, but good varieties have not been introduced until 
recently. Some of them promise to prove of value for the 
colder sections of that state. 

From its native home in Mexico this race has spread to 
several other regions, most notably Chile, where it appears to 
be well known. It is the only race grown successfully in 
the Mediterranean region, trees having fruited at Algiers, in 
southern Spain, along the Riviera in southern France, and even 
in such a cold location as that of Rome. In tropical regions 
outside of Mexico it seems to be little cultivated. 

The anise-like scent of the foliage and immature fruits is the 
most distinctive characteristic of the race and the one by which 



THE AVOCADO 



77 



it is usually identified. The leaves are commonly smaller 
than those of the Guatemalan and West Indian races, and 
sharper at the apex. The fruit is small, 3 to 12 ounces in 
weight, rarely 15 or 16 ounces. The skin is thin, often no 
thicker than that of an apple, and usually smooth and glossy 
on the surface. The color varies from green to deep purple. 
The seed is commonly larger in proportion to the size of the fruit 
than in the Guatemalan race. The seed-coats are both thin, 
sometimes closely united and adhering to the cotyledons, some- 
times separating as in the West Indian race. The flowers 
are heavily pubescent, and appear in winter or early spring, 
sometimes as early as November and usually 
not later than March. The fruit ripens in 
summer and autumn, commencing in June 
in Florida and August in California. Some- 
times a second crop is produced from late 
flowers, ripening from March to May in 
California. 



Northrop (Fig. 8). — Form obovate to pyri- 
form, sometimes distinctly necked ; size small, 
weight 5 to 8 ounces, length 4 inches, greatest 
breadth 21 inches ; base narrow, the slender stem 
inserted squarely almost without depression ; 
apex rounded ; surface smooth, very glossy, deep 
purple in color, with a few small maroon dots ; skin thin, adhering 
closely to the flesh, membranous ; flesh buttery, cream yellow in color, 
practically free from fiber, and of rich flavor ; quality good ; seed 
oblong-conic, small, fitting tightly in the cavity with the seed-coats 
both adhering closely. Season October and November at Santa Ana, 
California, with a second crop maturing in April and May. 

Originated near Santa Ana, California; first propagated in 1911 
under the name Eells. The tree is vigorous, frost-resistant, and 
productive. 

Puehla (Fig. 9). — Form obovoid, slightly oblique; size below 
medium to medium, weight 8 to 10 ounces, length 3^ inches, greatest 
breadth 2| inches ; base obliquely flattened, the stem inserted slightly 
to one side in a small shallow cavity ; apex obliquely flattened but not 
prominently so ; surface smooth, glossy, deep maroon-purple in. color, 




Fig. 8. The North- 
rop avocado. (X f) 



78 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



with numerous reddish dots ; skin less than y^ inch thick, easily peeled 
from the flesh, firm in texture ; flesh rich cream yellow near the seed, 
changing to pale green near the skin, buttery in texture, and of rich 
nutty flavor ; quality very good ; seed medium to large, tight in the 
cavity, with both seed-coats adhering closely to the cotyledons. 
Season December to February in southern California. 

Originated at Atlixco, state of Puebla, Mex- 
ico ; first propagated in 1911, in which year it 
was introduced into California. A vigorous and 
hardy variety, fruiting later in the season than 
most others of its race. 




Fig. 9. The Puebla 
avocado. (X |) 



Hybrids. 

This group has been established to in- 
clude hybrids between Persea drymifolia 
(the Mexican race of horticulture) and P. 
americana (the Guatemalan and West 
Indian races). Fuerte is the only variety 
which at present falls within it, and even 
this is not definitely known to be a hybrid. It bears, however, 
many evidences of hybridity, and cannot rightly be classified 
either with the Mexican or the Guatemalan races. . 

Fuerte. — Form pyrif orm (not necked) to oblong ; size below 
medium to above medium, weight 10 to 16 ounces, length 4 to 4^^ 
inches, greatest breadth 2z to 2| inches ; base pointed ; the stem! 
inserted obliquely in a small shallow cavity ; apex obliquely flattened, 
depressed around the stigmatic point ; surface pebbled, sometimes 
slightly wrinkled around the stem, dull green, with numerous small 
yellow dots ; skin about i? inch thick, separating readily from the flesh, 
pliable and leathery in texture ; flesh rich cream yellow in color, 
greenish near the skin, of smooth buttery texture, and very rich flavor ; 
quality excellent ; seed small, tight in cavity, seed-coats closely sur- 
rounding cotyledons. Season January to August in southern California. 

Originated at Atlixco, state of Puebla, Mexico ; first propagated 
in 1911, in which year it was introduced into California. An unusual 
variety, apparently a hybrid between the Guatemalan race of Persea 
americana and the Mexican race (P. drymifolia). It is characterized 
by great vigor of growth, hardiness, good productiveness, and a long 
season of ripening differing from that of nearly aU Guatemalan and 
Mexican varieties. The fruit contains as much as 30 per cent of fat, 
and is of very pleasant flavor. 



CHAPTER III 

THE MANGO 

Plates V-Vl 

Akbar, the Mughal emperor who reigned in northern India 
from 1556 to 1605, planted near Darbhanga the Lakh Bagh, an 
orchard of a hundred thousand mango trees. Nothing, perhaps, 
more eloquently attests the importance of this fruit and the 
esteem in which it has long been held than this immense 
planting, made at a time when large orchards of fruit-trees 
were almost unknown. Three hundred years after they were 
set out, the English horticulturist Charles Maries found some of 
these trees still in vigorous condition. 

Few other fruits have the historic background of the mango, 
and few others are so inextricably connected with the folk-lore 
and religious ceremonies of a great people. Buddha himself 
was presented with a mango grove, that he might find repose 
beneath its grateful shade. The Turkoman poet Amir Khusrau, 
whose grass-covered tomb is still venerated at Delhi, wrote 
to this effect in Persian verse during the reign of Muhammad 
Tughlak Shah (1325-1351) : 

The mango is the pride of the Garden, 
The choicest fruit of Hindustan. 
Other fruits we are content to eat when ripe, 
But the mango is good in all stages of growth. 

In more recent times, British authors have not hesitated 
to lavish praise on this oriental King of Fruits. Fryer, in 1673, 
wrote regarding mangos that " The Apples of the Hesperides are 

79 



80 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

but Fables to them; for Taste, the Nectarine, Peach, and 
Apricot fall short." Hamilton, who wrote in 1727, went even 
farther than this; he declares "The Goa mango is reckoned 
the largest and most delicious to the taste of any in the world, 
and I may add, the wholesomest and best tasted of any Fruit 
in the World." 

These few quotations will suffice to show the long established 
prestige of the mango in its native home. After the develop- 
ment of trade between India and the outside world, its culti- 
vation spread to other countries. At the present time the 
mango is a fruit of greater importance to millions throughout 
the tropics than is the apple to temperate North America. 

In the past twenty years choice budded or grafted varieties 
have been planted in Florida and the West Indies, and the 
fruit has begun to appear in the markets of the North. The 
rich spicy flavor of the mango, its peculiarly tempting fragrance, 
and the beautiful shades of color which characterize many 
varieties, make it one of the most attractive dessert fruits on 
the American market. 

In many instances travelers have made the acquaintance 
of this fruit through some of the fibrous seedlings which abound 
in all parts of the tropical world, and as a result may have 
formed an aversion for it difficult to overcome. It is only in 
the superb grafted varieties of the Orient, the product of cen- 
turies of improvement, that the mango exhibits its best qualities. 
There is more difference between an ordinary seedling and a 
grafted Alphonse than there is between a crab-apple and a 
Gravenstein. 

Since the introduction of these choice varieties into tropical 
and subtropical America, mango Culture has there taken on a 
new aspect. Previously limited to the production of seedling 
fruits usually of inferior quality though valuable for local 
consumption, the industry is now being developed with a view 
to supplying northern markets with fancy fruit. 



THE MANGO 81 

While many of the common seedlings yield abundantly with 
no cultural attention, the production of fine grafted mangos is 
attended by certain cultural difficulties, some of which are yet 
to be overcome. Anthracnose, a fungous disease related to the 
wither-tip of citrus fruits, is a serious pest in many regions. 
The greatest difficulty, however, is the tendency of many of the 
choice Indian varieties to bear irregularly. In some cases good 
crops are produced not oftener than once in three or four years. 
Thorough investigation of cultural requirements together with 
experimental planting of many varieties is bringing to light 
the most productive kinds and the proper methods to be 
employed in their cultivation. 

Botanical Description 

The family Anacardiaceae, to which the mango belongs, 
includes a large number of plants found within the tropics 
and a few growing in the Mediterranean region, Japan, 
and temperate North America. The best known relatives 
of the mango are, probably, the cashew (Anacardium occi- 
dentale), widely cultivated in the tropics for its edible 
fruit; the pistachio nut {Pistacia vera) of the Mediter- 
ranean region; several species of Spondias which are grown 
for their edible fruits ; the obnoxious poison ivy {Rhus Toxi- 
codendron) of the United States; and the so-called pepper- 
tree, Schinus molle, familiar in the gardens and streets of 
southern California. 

The cultivated mangos are usually considered as belonging 
to a single species, Mangifera indica. It has been pointed 
out by certain botanists, however, that probably other species 
have entered into the composition of cultivated forms. C. L. 
Blume ^ says that they have developed from many species 
scattered through tropical Asia, mainly in the Malay Archi- 

1 Mus. Lugd. Bat. 1, 190-191. 



82 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

pelago. It is probable that some of the groups or races recog- 
nized as horticulturally distinct represent other species than 
M. indica, or hybrids, A species which has been regarded 
particularly as one of the ancestors of cultivated forms is M. 
laurina. 

About forty species of the genus Mangifera are recognized 
by botanists, most of them coming from the Malayan region. 
Several are cultivated for their fruits, although on a limited 
scale. Some of them are perhaps not distinct from M. indica, 
as at present recognized. The following species merit con- 
sideration in connection with mango culture (the notes are 
based mainly on Hooker's Flora of British India and Blume's 
Museum Botanicum Lugduno-Batavum) : 

Mangifera altissima, Blanco. Pahutan. Indigenous to the Philip- 
pine Islands. Fruit large, closely resembling that of the mango, edible. 

M. coesia, Jack. Binjai. Wild and cultivated in Malacca, 
Sumatra, and Java. Fruit oblong-obovate, reddish white in color, 
not of good quality. 

M. fcetida, Lour. Bachang. Ambatjang. Distribtited through- 
out the Malay Archipelago. Fruit variable in form, not compressed, 
green, with yeUow flesh of disagreeable odor. Not esteemed, although 
sometimes eaten. 

M. laurina, Blume. Manga monjet, Manga pari, etc. Wild and 
cultivated in the Malay Archipelago. Fruit elliptic-oblique, the size 
of a plum. Blume describes numerous varieties grown in Java and 
other islands. Certainly very close to M. indica. 

M. odorata. Griff. KuwiNi. Bttmbum. Wild in Malacca, cul- 
tivated in Java. Fruit oblong, yellowish green, the flesh yeUow, 
sweet, with no turpentine flavor. "Often planted by the natives, who 
eat the fruit." 

M. sylvatica, Roxb. Tropical Nipal, Sikkim Himalaya, and the 
Khasia mountains of India ; Andaman Islands. The foliage is like that 
of the common mango ; the fruit, ovoid, beaked, differs only slightly 
from that of M. indica. 

M. verticillata, Rob. Bauno. Wild in the southern Philippine 
Islands. Fruit "very juicy, rich, subacid, quite aromatic, of excellent 
flavor." 

M. zeylanica, Hook. f. Wild in Ceylon. Closely resembles M. 
indica, but is considered by Hooker to differ in habit and foliage, and 
in the character of the flowers. Fruit said to be smaU, edible. 



THE MANGO 83 

The mango tree is evergreen. Seedlings on deep rich soils 
often reach immense size. One measured in Bahia, Brazil, 
had a spread of 125 feet and a trunk 25 feet in circumference. 
Trees believed to be more than a hundred years old are common 
in the Orient ; not a few such are to be seen in tropical America, 
but the comparatively recent introduction of the mango into 
this hemisphere makes old trees less common than in India. 
Budded or grafted trees do not grow so large as do seedlings, 
and are probably shorter lived. 

The crown is sometimes broad and round-topped ; in other 
instances it is oval, giving the tree an erect or even slender 
form. The leaves are lanceolate, commonly to 12 inches in 
length, rigid, deep green, almost glossy, borne upon slender 
petioles 1 to 4 inches long. Growth is not continuous through- 
out a long season, but takes place in frequently recurring periods, 
each of which is followed by a period of inactivity. These 
periods of growth (commonly termed "flushes" by horti- 
culturists) do not occur at fixed intervals, and in fact the whole 
tree does not always break out in new growth at the same time. 
It is a common occurrence for one side of the tree to be in active 
growth while the other side is dormant. The young leaves are 
usually reddish or coppery, and often hang limply from the 
ends of the branchlets. After the growth has begun to mature, 
they become turgid and soon lose their reddish color. 

The small pinkish white flowers are borne in large panicles 
at the ends of the branchlets. In Florida and the West Indies 
the flowering season extends from December to April. Some- 
times the trees bloom two or three times during the season. 
More than 4000 flowers have been counted on a single panicle, 
but not all of these are capable of developing into fruits, since 
the mango is "polygamous," that is, it produces two kinds of 
flowers : perfect ones having both stamens and pistils, and 
others which are unisexual. The unisexual flowers, which 
are staminate, commonly outnumber the perfect ones ; usually. 



84 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

however, there is only one pollen-bearing stamen in each flower. 
The perfect blossoms are easily distinguished from the staminate 
by the presence in the former of the small greenish yellow ovary 
surmounting the white disk in the center. 

The fruit varies greatly in size and character. The smallest 
kinds are no larger than good-sized plums, while the largest 
are 4 or 5 pounds in weight. The form is oval, heart- 
shaped, kidney-shaped, round, or long and slender. The skin 
is smooth, thicker than that of a peach, commonly yellow on 
the surface but varying greatly in color. Some varieties are 
delicately colored, deep yellow or apricot with a crimson blush 
on one cheek; others are an unattractive green even when 
ripe. The color depends to a certain extent on the climate in 
which the fruit is grown. The aroma is often spicy and alluring, 
indicative of the flavor of the fruit. The flesh is yellow or 
orange in color, juicy, often fibrous in seedlings and inferior 
budded varieties, but in the best sorts entirely free from fiber 
and of smooth melting texture. The seed is large and flattened, 
its tough, woody husk or outer covering inclosing a white 
kernel. The flavor of the mango has been likened to a com- 
bination of apricot and pineapple, yet it cannot be described 
accurately by any such comparison. It is rich and luscious in 
the best varieties, sweet, but with sufficient acidity and spiciness 
to prevent its cloying the palate. 

History and Distribution 

Alphonse DeCandolle considered it probable that the mango 
could be included among the fruits which have been cultivated 
by man for 4000 years. Its prominence in Hindu mythology 
and religious observance leaves no doubt as to its antiquity, 
while its economic importance in ancient times is suggested 
by one of the Sanskrit names, am, which has an alternative 
meaning of provisions or victuals. 



THE MANGO 85 

Dymock, Warden, and Hooper (Pharmacographia Indica) 
give the following resume of its position in the intellectual life 
of the Hindus : 

" The mango, in Sanskrit Amra, Chuta and Sahakara, is said to be a 
transformation of Prajapati (lord of creatures), an epithet in the 
Veda originally applied to Savitri, Soma, Tvashtri, Hirangagarbha, 
Indra, and Agni, but afterwards the name of a separate god presiding 
over procreation. (Manu. xii, 121.) In more recent hymns and 
Brahmanas Prajapati is identified with the universe. 

"The tree provides one of the paneha-pallava or aggregate of five 
sprigs used in Hindu ceremonial, and its flowers are used in Shiva 
worship on the Shivaratri. It is also a favorite of the Indian poets. 
The flower is invoked in the sixth act of Sakuntala as one of the five 
arrows of Kamadeva. In the travels of the Buddhist pilgrims Fah-hien 
and Sung-yun (translated by Beal) a mango grove (Amravana) is 
mentioned which was presented by Amradarika to Buddha in order 
that he might use it as a place of repose. This Amradarika, a kind of 
Buddhie Magdalen, was the daughter of the mango tree. In the Indian 
story of Surya Bai (see Cox, Myth, of the Arian Nations) the daughter 
of the sun is represented as persecuted by a sorceress, to escape from 
whom she became a golden Lotus. The king fell in love with the flower, 
which was then burnt by the sorceress. From its ashes grew a mango 
tree, and the king fell in love first with its flower, and then with its 
fruit ; when ripe the fruit fell to the ground, and from it emerged the 
daughter of the sun (Surya Bai), who was recognized by the prince as his 
long lost wife." 

When introduced into regions where climatic conditions are 
favorable, the mango rapidly becomes naturalized and takes 
on the appearance of a wild plant. This fact, together with the 
long period of time during which it has been cultivated through- 
out India, makes it difficult to determine the original home of the 
species. 

Sir Joseph Hooker (Flora of British India) considered the 
mango to be indigenous in the tropical Himalayan region, from 
Kumaon to the Bhutan hills and the valleys of Behar, the 
Khasia mountains, Burma, Oudh, and the Western peninsula 
from Kandeish southwards. He adds, "It is difficult to say 
whether so common a tree is wild or not in a given locality, 



86 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

but there seems to be little doubt that it is indigenous in the 
localities enumerated." Dietrich Brandis (Indian Trees) says 
it is indigenous in Burma, the Western Ghats, in the Khasia 
hills, Sikkim, and in the ravines of the Satpuras. R. S. Hole, 
of the Imperial Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun, 
considers that the so-called wild mangos which are found in 
many parts of India are mostly forms escaped from cultivation, 
as shown by the fact that they are always near streams or 
foot-paths in the jungle, where seeds have been thrown by 
passing natives. 

Alphonse DeCandolle says : " It is impossible to doubt that 
it is a native of the south of Asia and of the Malay Archipelago, 
when we see the multitude of varieties cultivated in those 
countries, the number of ancient names, in particular a San- 
skrit name, its abundance in the gardens of Bengal, of the Dek- 
kan peninsula, and of Ceylon, even in Rheede's time. . . . 
The true mango is indicated by modern authors as wild in the 
forests of Ceylon, the regions at the base of the Himalayas, 
especially towards the east, in Arracan, Pegu, and the Andaman 
Isles. Miquel does not mention it as wild in any of the islands 
of the Malay Archipelago. In spite of its growing in Ceylon, 
and the indications, less positive certainly, of Sir Joseph Hooker 
in the Flora of British India, the species is probably rare or only 
naturalized in the Indian peninsula." 

Most species of Mangifera are natives of the Malayan 
region. Sumatra in particular is the home of several. While 
it is known that the mango has been cultivated in western India 
since a remote day, and we find it to-day naturalized in many 
places, it seems probable that its native home is to be sought in 
eastern India, Assam, Burma, or possibly farther in the Malayan 
region. 

The Chinese traveler Hwen T'sang, who visited Hindustan 
between 632 and 645 a.d., was the first person, so far as known, 
to bring the mango to the notice of the outside world. He 



THE MANGO 87 

speaks of it as an-mo-lo, which Yule and Burnell consider a 
phonetization of the Sanskrit name amra. Several centuries 
later, in 1328, Friar Jordanus, who had visited the Konkan 
and learned to appreciate the progenitors of the Goa and Bom- 
bay mangos, wrote, "There is another tree which bears a fruit 
the size of a large plum, which they call aniba." He found it 
"sweet and pleasant." The common name which he used is a 
variation of the north Indian am or amba. Six years later 
(1334) Ibn Batuta wrote that "the mango tree ('anba) resembles 
an orange tree, but is larger and more leafy; no other tree 
gives so much shade." John de Marignolli, in 1349, says, 
" They also have another tree called amburan, having a fruit of 
excellent fragrance and flavor, somewhat like a peach." Var- 
thema, in 1510, mentioned the mango briefly, using the name 
amba. Sultan Baber, who. wrote in 1526, is the first to distin- 
guish between choice and inferior varieties. He says, "Of 
the vegetable productions peculiar to Hindustan one is the 
mango, (ambeh). . . . Such mangos as are good are excellent." 

The island of Ormuz, in the mouth of the Persian Gulf, 
was settled in early days by the Portuguese and became one 
of the great emporiums of the East, Garcia de Orta, a Portu- 
guese from Goa, wrote in 1563 that the mangos of Ormuz 
were the finest in the Orient, surpassing those of India. It is 
probable, however, that the mangos known at Ormuz were not 
grown on the island itself, since it has very little arable land and 
water is exceedingly scarce. The Cronica dos Reys Dormuz 
(1569) says that mangos were brought to Ormuz from Arabia 
and Persia. Later, in 1622, P. della Valle speaks of the mangos 
grown on the Persian mainland at Minao, only a few miles 
from Ormuz. 

The Ain-i-Akbari, an encyclopedic work written during the 
reign of Akbar (about 1590), contains a lengthy account of the 
mango. Akbar, it may be remembered, was the Mughal 
emperor who planted the Lakh Bagh at Darbhanga, and in 



88 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

other ways stimulated the cultivation of fruit-trees through- 
out northern India. Abu-1 Fazl-i-'Allami, author of the Ain 
(translated by Blochmann), writes : 

" The Persians call this fruit Naghzak, as appears from a verse of 
Khusrau. This fruit is unrivalled in color, smell, and taste ; and some 
of the gourmands of Turan and Iran place it above muskmelons and 
grapes. In shape it resembles an apricot, or a quince, or a pear, or a 
melon, and weighs even one ser and upwards. There are green, yeUow, 
red, variegated, sweet and subacid mangos. The tree looks well, 
especially when young ; it is larger than a nut tree, and its leaves re- 
semble those of a willow, but are larger. The new leaves appear soon 
after the fall of the old ones in the autumn, and look green and yellow, 
orange, peach-colored, and bright red. The flower, which opens in 
the spring, resembles that of the vine, has a good smell, and looks very 
curious. . . . The fruit is generally taken down when unripe, and 
kept in a particular manner. Mangos ripened in this manner are 
much finer. They commence mostly to ripen during summer and are 
fit to be eaten during the rains ; others commence in the rainy season 
and are ripe in the beginning of winter ; the latter are called Bhadiyyah. 
Some trees bloom and yield fruit the whole year ; but this is rare. 
Others commence to ripen, although they look unripe ; they must be 
quickly taken down, else the sweetness would produce worms. Mangos 
are to be found everywhere in India, especially in Bengal, Gujrat, 
Malwah, Khandesh, and the Dekhan. They are rarer in the Panjab, 
where their cultivation has, however, increased since his Majesty made 
Labor his capital. A young tree will bear fruit after four years. They 
also put milk and treacle around the tree, which makes the fruits 
sweeter. Some trees yield in one year a rich harvest, and less in the 
next; others yield for one year no fruit at aU. . . ." 

The name mango, by which this fruit is known to English- 
speaking as well as Spanish-speaking peoples, is derived from 
the Portuguese manga. According to Yule and Burnell, the 
Tamil name man-kay or man-gay is the original of the word, 
the Portuguese having formed manga from this when they settled 
in western India. Skeat traces the origin of the name to the 
Malayan manga, but other writers consider the latter to have 
been introduced into the Malay Archipelago from India. The 
name mango is used in German and Italian, while the Dutch 
have adopted manga or mangga, and the French form is mangue. 



THE MANGO 89 

In the Malay Archipelago and in many parts of Polynesia 
mangos are plentiful. W. E. Safford ^ writes, "The mango 
tree is not well established in Guam. There are few trees on 
the Island, but these produce fruit of the finest quality. Guam 
mangos are large, sweet, fleshy, juicy, and almost entirely free 
from the fiber and flavor which so often characterize the fruit." 
Excellent mangos were formerly shipped from the French island 
of Tahiti to San Francisco. Many choice varieties have been 
planted in the Hawaiian Islands. J. E. Higgins has written 
a bulletin on mango culture in this region. 

On the tropical coast of Africa, extending south to the Cape 
of Good Hope, and in Madagascar, mangos are common. 
The French island of Reunion is the original home of several 
varieties now cultivated in the West Indies and Florida. 

In Queensland, Australia, attention has been given to the 
asexual propagation of this fruit, and a limited number of 
choice Indian varieties have been introduced. 

In the Mediterranean region the species is not entirely 
successful. Trees are reported to have produced fruit in 
several localities, but nowhere have they become commonly 
grown. In Madeira and the Canary Islands they are more 
at home ; Captain Cook, when on his first voyage of discovery, 
reported in 1768 that mangos grew almost spontaneously in 
Madeira. C. H. Gable, who has recently worked on the island, 
says there are now only a few trees to be found, but that these 
bear profusely. 

The Portuguese are given the credit for bringing the mango 
to America. It is believed to have been first planted at Bahia, 
Brazil, at an uncertain date probably not earlier than 1700. 
Captain Cook found in 1768 that the fruit was produced in 
great abundance at Rio de Janeiro. In the West Indies it was 
first introduced at Barbados in 1742 or thereabouts, the "tree 
or its seed" having been brought from Rio de Janeiro. It did 
1 Useful Plants of Guam. 



90 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

not reach Jamaica until 1782. Its introduction into the latter 
island is described by Bryan Edwards : ^ " This plant, with 
several others, as well as different kinds of Seeds, were 
found on board a French ship (bound from the Isle de France 
for Hispaniola) taken by Captain Marshall of his Majesty's 
Ship Flora, one of Lord Rodney's Squadron, in June, 1782, 
and sent as a Prize to this island. By Captain Marshall, 
with Lord Rodney's approbation, the whole collection was 
deposited in Mr. East's garden, where they have been cul- 
tivated with great assiduity and success." Thirty-two years 
after its introduction, John Lunan stated that the mango had 
become one of the commonest fruit-trees of Jamaica. 

It is said to have been introduced into Mexico at the same 
time as the coffee plant, early in the nineteenth century, the 
introducer having been D . Juan Antonio Gomez of Cordoba. It 
is evident that Mexico has received mangos from two sources ; 
some from the West Indies, and others from the Philippines, 
brought by the Spanish galleons which traded in early times 
between Acapulco and Manila. 

The cultivation of the mango under glass in Europe was 
attempted at an early day. A writer in Curtis' Botanical 
Magazine in 1850 says : "The mango is recorded to have been 
grown in the hothouses of this country at least 160 years ago, 
but it is only within the last twenty years that it has come into 
notice as a fruit capable of being brought to perfection in 
England. The first and, we believe, the most successful 
attempt was made by the late Earl of Powis, in his garden at 
Walcot, where he had a lofty hothouse 400 feet long and between 
30 and 40 feet wide constructed for the cultivation of the mango 
and other rare and tropical fruits; but within these last few 
years we have known it to bear fruit in other gardens." 

In the United States, cultivation of the mango is limited to 
southern Florida and southern California. It is believed the 
1 History of the West Indies, 1793. 



TEE MANGO 91 

species was first introduced into the former state by Henry 
Perrine, who sent plants from Mexico to his grant of land below 
Miami in 1833. These trees, however, perished from neglect 
after Perrine's death, and many years passed before another 
introduction was made. According to P. J. Wester, the second 
and successful introduction was in 1861 or 1862, by Fletcher of 
Miami. The trees introduced in these early years were seed- 
lings. In 1885 Rev. D. G. Watt of Pinellas made an attempt to 
introduce the choice grafted varieties of India. According to 
P. N. Reasoner,^ Watt obtained from Calcutta eight plants 
of the two best sorts, Bombay and Malda. "They were nearly 
three months on the passage, and when the case was opened 
five were dead ; another died soon after, and the two remaining 
plants were starting nicely, when the freeze destroyed them 
entirely." In 1888 Herbert Beck of St. Petersburg obtained a 
shipment of thirty-five inarched trees from Calcutta. This ship- 
ment included the following varieties : "Bombay No. 23, Bom- 
bay No. 24, Chuckchokia, Arbuthnot, Gopalbhog, Singapore, 
and Alphonse." In the latter part of 1889 Beck reported to the 
Department of Agriculture that all but seven of the trees had 
died. Further details regarding this importation are lacking, 
but it is not believed that any of the trees lived to produce fruit. 
On November 1, 1889, the Division of Pomology at Wash- 
ington received through Consul B. F. Farnham of Bombay, 
India, a shipment of six varieties, as follows : " Alphonse, 
Banchore, Banchore of Dhiren, Devarubria, Mulgoba, and 
Pirie." The trees were obtained from G. Marshall Woodrow, at 
Poona. After their arrival in this country they were for- 
warded to horticulturists on Lake Worth, Florida. Most of 
the trees succumbed to successive freezes, but in 1898 Elbridge 
Gale reported that one Alphonse sent to Brelsford Brothers 
was still alive, but was not doing well ; and that of the five 
trees sent to himself only one, a Mulgoba, had survived. This 
^ Division of Pomology, Bull. 1. 



92 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

tree began to bear in 1898, and is still productive, although it 
has not borne large crops in recent years. The superior quality 
of its fruit furnished the needed stimulus to the development of 
mango culture in this country, and considerable numbers of 
Mulgobas were soon propagated and planted along the lower 
east coast of Florida. Recently, numerous other Indian varie- 
ties have fruited in that state, some of them more valuable 
from a commercial standpoint than Mulgoba, so that the latter 
probably will not retain the prominent position which it has held. 
As regards California, the exact date at which the mango was 
first introduced is not known, but it is believed by F. Franceschi 
that it was first planted at Santa Barbara, between 1880 and 
1885. 

Composition and Uses of the Fruit 

The mango contains much sugar. The proportions of other 
constituents, such as acids and protein, are low in the ripe 
fruit. The following table, from analyses made in Hawaii by 
Alice R. Thompson, shows the composition of three well- 
known Indian varieties : 

Table II. Composition op the Mango 



Vabieti: 


Total 
Solids 


Ash 


Acids 


Peotein 


Total 

SUGAES 


F/.T 


Pairi .....". 
Alphonse .... 
Totapari .... 


% 

20.52 
20.92 
15.27 


% 

0.343 

.469 

.277 


% 
0.221 

.373 

.578 


% 

0.456 

.919 

.475 


% 

14.78 
14.64 
11.48 


% 

0.032 
.149 
.065 



In commenting on these and other data, Miss Thompson ^ 
says: "The total solids are high for the average fresh fruit; 

1 Hawaii Exp, Sta. Rept., 1914. 



THE MANGO 93 

the total sugars vary from 11 to 20 per cent, according to the 
variety. In all samples the sucrose is the principal sugar 
present. The protein in several varieties is a little higher than 
is usual in fruits. The acidity varies and is as much as 0.5 
per cent in one variety. Qualitative tests showed the presence 
of considerable amounts of tannin, but no starch was apparent." 

The unripe fruit is characterized by the presence of malic 
and tartaric acids in considerable quantities. An analysis 
published in the Pharmacographia Indica shows the percentage 
of tartaric (with a trace of citric) to be 7.04, and the remaining 
free acid as malic, 12.66. 

The Agricultural News (Barbados, September 27, 1913) 
published a comparison of the chemical composition of the 
apple with that of the Carabao mango, one of the principal 
Philippine sorts. It was found that "The former fruit con- 
tains 14.96 per cent solids, whereas the mango contains 17.2. 
In regard to sugar (total) the first-named fruit contains about 
7.58 per cent, whereas the mango has 13.24. As regards pro- 
tein (nitrogenous matter) the apple has about 0.22 per cent, 
and the mango 0.22 per cent also. The total acidity in the 
apple is 1.04 per cent, whereas in the mango it is only 0.14 
per cent. In making these comparisons we have purposely 
taken one of the less nutritious varieties of mango, and it may 
safely be said that in regard to chemical composition the 
balance is on the side of the mango." 

While the mango is most commonly eaten as a fresh fruit, 
it can be utilized in many different ways. Sir George Watt ^ 
says: 

"Besides being eaten as a ripe fruit, numerous preparations 
are made of it. When green it is cut into slices, and after 
extraction of the stone, is put into curries, or made into pickles 
with other ingredients or into preserves and jellies. When 
young and green it is boiled, strained, mixed with milk and 
1 Commercial Products of India. 



94 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

sugar, and thus prepared as the custard known as mangophul, 
or dried and made into the native amhchur. When very young 
it may be cut into small pieces and eaten in salad. So again, 
the ripe fruit is used in curries and salads, and the expressed 
juice when spread on plates and allowed to dry is formed into 
the thin cakes known as ambsath." 

In the United States, mangos have up to the present been 
used chiefly as dessert fruits. To a less extent they have been 
made into chutney, — the spicy sauce well known to all those 
who have traveled in the Orient, — preserves, sauces, and pies. 
For these purposes the fruit is taken before fully ripe. The 
"mango pickles" sold in the northern United States are not 
made from the mango, but from a sweet pepper ; the use of 
the name mango in this connection is unwarranted. 

Mangos are canned in the same manner as peaches. Recently 
a firm at Muzaffarpur, India, has undertaken to develop an 
export trade in preserved mangos. About 18,000 cans were 
shipped to England in a single year. Consul General William 
H. Michael said of the product, "I have opened one can of the 
Bombay Extra mangos and find that they are carefully packed 
and retain their flavor as well as could be expected of this sort 
of fruit. In fact they are as well preserved and retain their 
flavor quite as well as do peaches canned in California." 

Hindu and Muhammadan writers on Materia Medica discuss 
at length the medicinal virtues of the mango : 

"Shortly, we may say that they consider the ripe fruit to be in- 
vigorating and refreshing, fattening, and slightly laxative and diuretic ; 
but the rind and fiber, as well as the unripe fruit, to be astringent and 
acid. The latter when pickled is much used on account of its stomachic 
and appetizing qualities. Unripe mangos peeled and cut from the 
stone and dried in the sun form the well-known Amchur or Ambosi 
(Amrapesi, Sans.,) so largely used in India as an article of diet; as 
its acidity is chiefly due to the presence of citric acid, it is a valuable 
anti-scorbutic ; it is also called Am-ki-chhitta and Am-khushk. The 
blossom, kernel, and bark are considered to be cold, dry and astringent, 
and are used in diarrhoea, etc. The smoke of the burning leaves is 



THE MANGO 95 

supposed to liave a curative effect in some affections of the throat. 
According to the author of the Makhzan, the Hindus make a confection 
of the baked pulp of the unripe fruit mixed with sugar, which in time 
of plague or cholera they take internally and rub all over the body ; 
it is also stated in the same work that the midribs of the leaves calcined 
are used to remove warts on the eyelids." (Dymock, Warden, and 
Hooper.) 

Climate and Soil 

While the mango grows in humid tropical regions subject to 
heavy rains throughout the year, it is not successfully cultivated 
for its fruit under these conditions. It requires the stimulus of 
a dry season to fruit abundantly. To a certain extent this 
stimulus can be given by artificial means, but there can be no 
doubt that the best regions for commercial mango culture are 
those in which there is a well-marked dry season occurring at 
the proper time of year. 

This is illustrated by conditions in India. Lower Bengal 
is a humid region in which moisture-loving tropical plants are 
completely at home. Mango trees in this region are ragged in 
appearance, with foliage of an unhealthy color, and the fruit 
does not ripen well. In sharp contrast, the trees at Saharanpur, 
on the dry plains of northern India, are vigorous and stocky in 
habit, with abundant foliage of rich green color. They fruit more 
profusely than those in the moist lowlands, and the fruit 
ripens perfectly. Saharanpur lies at an elevation of 1000 feet, 
and has an annual rainfall of about thirty-five inches. During 
the season when mangos are ripening, no rain falls and the air 
is hot and dry. Temperature of 100° F., continued throughout 
day and night, are common. The monsoon, or rainy season, 
lasts but a few months. 

The total amount of rainfall is not so important as the season 
during which it occurs. Where the dry season coincides with 
the normal flowering time of the mango, good crops of fruit can 
be expected, but it seems doubtful whether the finer grafted 



96 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

mangos can be cultivated successfully in regions where there 
is much precipitation during the flowering season. Some of the 
seedling races will fruit under these conditions, but the choice 
Indian varieties are more exacting in their climatic requirements. 

On this point G. N. Collins ^ states : "The fact that the tree 
may thrive in a given locality and yet fail to produce fruit 
should always be kept in mind. It may be considered as 
proven that the mango will be prolific only in regions subjected 
to a considerable dry season. On the moist north side of Porto 
Rico the trees grow luxuriantly, but they are not nearly so 
prolific nor is the fruit of such good quality as on the dry south 
side, and in the very dry region about Yauco and at Cabo Rojo 
the fruit seemed at its best, while its abundance was attested 
by the fact that fine fruit was selling as low as 12 for a cent. 
In Guatemala and Mexico the mango was found at its best only 
in regions where severe dry seasons prevailed." 

Fawcett and Harris ^ report similar conditions in Jamaica. 
They say : " Although the mango grows freely everywhere, it 
is not a fruitful tree in every district ; in the southern plains 
and the low, dry limestone hills it produces enormous crops 
year after year, and very often two crops a year, the main crop 
from May to August, and the second crop later in the year. . . . 
In humid districts and along the northern coast the tree is 
not at all fruitful, except in very dry years, and in the wet 
districts like Castleton it rarely fruits." 

In the Botanic Garden at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, there is a 
magnificent avenue of mango trees planted by the emperor Dom 
Joao VI more than a century ago. So far as known these trees 
have never matured any fruits. They blossom, and occasionally 
set fruits, but the latter invariably drop off before reaching 
maturity. J. C. Willis, former director of the garden, attributes 
this to the fact that they are planted on low wet ground. 

iBuU. 28, U. S. Dept. Agr. 

2 Bull, of the Bot. Dept., vol. 8, 1901. 



THE MANGO 97 

Other mango trees in the immediate vicinity but on higher 
ground produce fruit regularly. 

Mangos can be grown successfully on soils of several different 
types. In Porto Rico deep sandy loam has given excellent 
results. On this soil the tree makes rapid growth and attains 
great size. The sandy soils of southern Florida have proved 
satisfactory. Clay, provided it is well drained, seems to be 
good. 

In India, some of the best mango districts are situated 
on the great Indo-Gangetic plain, where the soil is a deep, rich 
alluvial loam. This may perhaps be considered the best of 
all mango soils. An analysis of surface soil from the mango 
orchards in the Saharanpur Botanic Garden shows that it 
contains : 

Lime (CaO) .....;.. 1.20 % 

Magnesia (MgO) 1.18 % 

Potash (K2O) 2.73 % 

Phosphoric acid (PaOg) . 0.18 % 

Nitrogen 0.105% 

C. F. Kinman ^ says : 

"A shallow soil underlain with stone or hardpan, although 
sufficiently deep to produce shrubs or other low-growing wild 
vegetation, will not satisfy the needs of the deep rooted mango, 
whose growth in such ground will be slow and its yield poor, 
at least after the first few years. The application of fertilizers, 
however, will materially decrease the depth of the soil re- 
quired. . . . Mango trees are often found on very light, un- 
fertile sand, which may be a few feet in depth, and still produce 
flourishing growth if the subsoil is suitable. As the mango, 
like most other fruit trees, thrives best on a deep loose loam 
with good drainage and a high percentage of humus, those who 
intend planting it commercially should secure, if possible, this 
type of soil." 

1 Porto Rico Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., 24. 

H 



98 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Much more important than the mechanical or chemical 
composition, in most cases, is the drainage of the land. The 
mango avenue in the Botanic Garden at Rio de Janeiro illus- 
trates this. If the subsoil is permanently wet or poorly drained, 
the tree cannot be expected to fruit profusely. 

While the mango is more susceptible to frost than the hardier 
races of the avocado, mature trees have withstood temperatures 
below the freezing point without injury. In general it may 
be said that most varieties, if not in active growth at the time 
cold weather strikes them, will withstand 28° or 29° above zero, 
provided such temperatures are not of long duration. Young 
trees in vigorous growth may be injured seriously by a tem- 
perature of 32°. At Miami, Florida, five-year-old trees of one 
or two varieties were killed outright by a freeze of 26.5°. Old 
seedling trees have gone through temperatures lower than this 
without losing more than the smallest branches. The cul- 
tivated kinds show slight differences in hardiness. Observa- 
tions have been made at Saharanpur and lists drawn up show- 
ing the relative susceptibility to frost of many varieties. The 
vagaries of the 1917 freeze in southern Florida, however, have 
resulted in an impression that such lists are not altogether 
dependable, and that much depends on local conditions, the 
physiological state of the tree, and other factors as yet not 
understood. 

The mango resists heavy winds much better than does the 
avocado. The wood is tough, and ordinarily the tree (except 
in the Cambodiana group) assumes a low compact form if not 
crowded. It is not essential, therefore, that the young tree 
be trained with a view to making it of such form that it will 
be able to withstand a hurricane or cyclone. 

Mango culture in California presents some unusual aspects. 
Although experience is limited, it is apparent that the great 
variations in temperature between night and day, coupled with 
the comparatively cold winters, have the effect of retarding 



THE MANGO 99 

the growth of the tree, as well as preventing the rapid develop- 
ment of the fruit. The dryness of the climate, on the other 
hand, makes the tree bear at an early age and yield very heavily. 
In certain situations near the sea, the summers are so cool 
that the fruit does not ripen properly. This has proved to be 
true of Santa Barbara, Hollywood, and San Diego. In the 
foothill regions, where the summers are warmer than near the 
sea, good mangos have been produced. It is necessary to 
protect the trees from frost while they are young ; even large 
trees are sometimes injured by an unusually severe winter. 
All of the mangos which have fruited in California up to the 
present time have been seedlings or inferior budded varieties : 
only recently have budded trees of choice varieties been planted. 
Localities such as Glendora and Monrovia, which have warm 
summers and are comparatively free from winter frosts, are 
probably the most suitable for mango culture. The hot summer 
weather of such districts hastens the development of the fruit 
and brings it to maturity before the onset of cool weather in 
autumn. 

Commercially, mango culture has never been considered 
promising in California. It should be possible to produce 
good fruit on a limited scale in a few of the most protected 
situations, but the greater number of mango trees which have 
been planted in the state have been killed by frost. 

In Florida, commercial mango culture is successful from Palm 
Beach on the east coast and Punta Gorda on the west coast 
down to the southern end of the peninsula. There are a few 
trees as far north as New Smyrna on the east coast and Tarpon 
Springs on the west, but the hazards are great in any except 
the warmest parts of the state. 

The largest commercial plantings have been made in the 
vicinity of Miami. There are a few small groves near Palm 
Beach and Fort Myers. At Oneco, near Bradentown, the 
Royal Palm Nurseries have one of the best variety collections in 



100 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

the state, but it is necessary to protect the trees during the 
winter. They are grown within a large shed whose top is made 
of thin muslin which can be removed in the summer. 

In southern Florida the weather is normally dry during the 
flowering season. Sometimes there are light rains in this 
period, or many cloudy damp days. In such seasons many of 
the Indian mangos, notably Mulgoba, fail to bear good crops, 
although the seedling mangos which are found throughout this 
region fruit abundantly. Mangos differ in their ability to 
flower and fruit under adverse climatic conditions. Some of 
the Indian varieties will only flower after a period of three or 
four weeks of dry sunny weather; certain Cuban seedling 
races (and those of other countries as well), on the other hand, 
will insist on flowering even though the spring months are 
unusually wet ; and if one crop of flowers is destroyed by the 
anthracnose fungus, as is often the case, they will flower a 
second and even a third time in an attempt to produce fruit. 
Methods of encouraging the Indian varieties to flower and fruit 
are discussed in a later paragraph. 

The soils of the Fort Myers region produce larger trees than 
those of Miami. The latter, which are mainly light sands under- 
laid with oolitic limestone, are nevertheless satisfactory when 
properly fertilized. The mango requires much less fertilizer 
than the avocado or the citrus fruits, but it only reaches large 
size when grown upon reasonably deep soil. 

Cuban soils are well suited to the mango. In commercial 
orchards near Habana, however, the anthracnose fungus has 
caused great damage and discouraged some of the growers. 
Methods of combating this pest are discussed under the heading 
diseases. In Porto Rico at least two orchards of considerable 
size have been planted with choice Indian varieties. Both of 
these are on the north side of the island, where the soil is 
excellent but the climate somewhat too moist for the best crop 
results. 



THE MANGO 101 



Cultivation 



The best site for the mango orchard is one which has good 
drainage together with soil of such nature that it will dry out 
thoroughly when no rain falls for a few weeks. In regions 
where the soil is deep and the trees consequently grow to large 
size, they should not be set closer than 35 by 35 feet. There 
are a few dwarf varieties, such as D'Or, which can be set much 
closer than this, but most of the Indian kinds ultimately make 
trees of good size. G. Marshall Woodrow recommends plant- 
ing 20 by 20 feet, but in America this has not been found a good 
practice. Closer planting than 30 by 30 feet is undesirable 
except with dwarf varieties. Seedlings grow to larger size than 
budded or grafted trees, and need proportionately more space. 
On deep soils they will usually come to crowd each other in 
time if planted less than 40 or 45 feet apart. 

April and May are considered the best months for planting 
in Florida. Midsummer planting is, however, much more 
successful than with the avocado. The principal point to be 
observed is the condition of the young tree at the time of plant- 
ing. If it is not in active growth, it can be set at almost any 
season of the year, provided the weather is warm. In India 
it is recommended to plant at the beginning of the rainy 
season. 

Holes 2 to 3 feet broad and deep should be prepared in ad- 
vance of planting. Woodrow recommends that 20 pounds of 
fresh bones be placed in the bottom of each hole before filling 
in the soil. In Florida a small amount of commercial fertilizer 
is commonly used. The object in preparing the holes is the 
same as in planting other fruits, viz., to loosen the subsoil so 
that the roots can develop readily in all directions, and to 
place in the ground a supply of food for the young tree. It is 
sometimes recommended that stable manure be incorporated 
with the soil ; this is a desirable practice, but it should be kept 



102 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

in mind that stable manure is not, generally speaking, suitable 
for bearing mango trees. 

Well-grown budded or grafted trees, when shipped from 
the nursery, are eighteen inches to three feet in height, with 
stems one-half inch in thickness. They should be stocky and 
straight, with foliage of rich green color. Inarched trees are 
sometimes weak, crooked, and may have poor unions. While 
many inarched trees are produced and planted in certain parts 
of the world, notably in India, they seem much less desirable 
than the sturdy budded trees grown in the nurseries of Florida. 

As soon as the young trees have been planted in the field, 
they should be shaded with a light framework covered with 
burlap or other cheap material. Palm leaves and pine boughs 
may be used for this purpose. The trees should, of course, 
be watered liberally as soon as they are planted, and in most 
regions the ground around the base of each should be mulched 
with straw or other loose material. 

During the first four or five years, the trees should be en- 
couraged to make vigorous rapid growth. After that the aim 
of the orchardist is to make them produce good crops of fruit. 
The object of early culture is, therefore, distinct from that of 
later years and somewhat different methods are required. The 
young growing tree can be given both water and fertilizer in 
liberal quantities; the mature tree, on the other hand, must 
be encouraged to fiower and fruit by withholding water and 
fertilizer during certain portions of the year. 

It must be admitted that the cultural requirements of the 
mango are not yet thoroughly understood. Varieties differ 
greatly in their reaction to the stimulus of tillage, irrigation, 
and manuring. A thorough study has not yet been made of 
the requirements even of a single variety. Horticulturists in 
India have devoted a limited amount of attention to the 
subject ; but the mango seems to differ so markedly from other 
fruits which have been subjected to systematic cultivation 



THE MANGO 103 

that much further study will be needed before its habits are 
thoroughly understood. 

The amount and character of tillage given to the orchard 
varies in different regions. In most parts of the tropics little 
attention is given to the mature tree. The soil beneath its 
spreading branches is often firmly packed down by the hoofs 
of domestic animals; or weeds may be allowed to grow un- 
checked. Needless to say, such treatment has little to recom- 
mend it. In Florida the land is sometimes given shallow 
cultivation during part of the year, and at other seasons legu- 
minous cover-crops may be grown upon it, particularly if the 
orchard is not yet of bearing age. It is evident that the 
amount of nitrogenous fertilizer required by bearing groves is 
small. Over-stimulation results in vigorous development of 
foliage but no fruit. 

Growers of grafted mangos in India resort to various expe- 
dients to check the vegetative activity of the tree and encourage 
the development of fruit. Thomas Firminger ^ says: "The 
mango, like all other fruit trees, is much benefited by having 
the earth around it removed, and the roots left exposed for a 
space of two or three weeks. This should be done in November, 
and in December the roots should be well supplied with manure, 
and then covered in again with entirely fresh earth, and not 
that which had been previously removed." Woodrow notes 
that "the mango growers near Mazagon, Bombay, who pro- 
duced such famous fruit before the land was occupied with 
cotton mills, applied ten pounds of salt to each tree at the end 
of September; this would arrest growth in October and 
November, and encourage the formation of flower buds. In a 
moist climate, and the intervening ground occupied with irri- 
gated crops, this system is highly commendable, but with a 
dry climate it is unnecessary." 

The failure of many varieties to fruit abundantly is often 
1 Manual of Gardening for India. 



104 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

attributed to imperfect pollination, attacks of insect pests, 
and other causes which are discussed in a later paragraph. It 
seems probable that too much emphasis has in the past been 
placed on these factors, and that the problem is largely a phys- 
iological one, connected with the nutrition of the tree. It is for 
this reason that the two quotations above are illuminative. 
They show that the nutritional problem has been recognized 
by early students of mango culture ; yet no one has taken up 
the subject in sufficient detail to master it. 

The mango requires less water than the avocado, although 
young trees are benefited by frequent irrigations. In Florida, 
old mango trees will be found growing and fruiting in fence 
corners and abandoned gardens where they have to depend 
entirely on rainfall. They are much more successful under such 
conditions than the avocado. Orchards of budded or grafted 
trees are rarely irrigated after the trees have attained a few 
years' growth. In other regions treatment must be different. 
In California, for example, irrigation should be practiced as 
with citrus fruits. J. E. Higgins remarks concerning Hawaii : 
"Liberal moisture must be supplied to the roots, from 50 to 70 
inches per year being required, according to the retentive 
power of the soil and the rate of evaporation. In the case of 
bearing trees the heaviest irrigation should be given from the 
time when the flower buds are about to open until several 
weeks after the fruiting is over, withholding large amounts of 
water during two or three months preceding the flowering 
season." Regarding India, Woodrow says: "When fruiting 
age is attained there need be no necessity for irrigation from the 
time the rain ceases in September till after the flowers have 
'set,' that is, till the young fruit appears ; thereafter, irrigation 
over the area covered by the branches once in fifteen days or so 
is desirable while the fruit is increasing in size, but may be 
discontinued when ripening approaches." 

All writers point out the necessity of applying a check to 



THE MANGO 105 

vegetative growth previous to the flowering season. Ringing 
and hacking the trunk are two of the commonest practices, while 
root-pruning is occasionally performed in India. Recent 
experiments indicate that a liberal application of potash is 
extremely beneficial. Mulgoba trees at Miami, Florida, and 
Guanajay, Cuba, which were heavily fertilized with potash, 
produced much larger crops than those fertilized in the ordinary 
way. A standard commercial fertilizer especially prepared in 
Florida for use on mango trees contains : 

Ammonia 5 to 6 % 

Phosphoric acid 7 to 9 % 

Potash 9 to 11% 

These elements are derived from ground bone, nitrate of soda, 
dried blood, dissolved bone black, and high-grade potash salts. 

Woodrow recommends for India that young trees be fer- 
tilized liberally with barnyard manure; but he adds that as 
soon as they come into bearing the application of manure must 
be stopped, and leguminous cover-crops planted between the 
rows. These crops can be plowed under, thereby enriching the 
soil in the necessary degree and at the same time keeping down 
weeds. The best legumes for this purpose, according to Wood- 
row, are Crotalaria juncea, Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus aconiti- 
folius, and Phaseolus Mungo. P. J. Wester says, "The velvet 
bean {Stizolobium Deeringianum) , Lyon bean (Mucuna Lyoni), 
the cowpea (Vigna Catjang) and related species may be used 
with good success in the Philippines. Of these the Lyon bean 
is preferable in the Philippines, since here it produces a greater 
amount of growth per acre than any other legume." In 
Florida velvet beans, cowpeas, and the bonavist bean (Dolichos 
Lablah) have been used. Growers should plant a number of 
different legumes experimentally to determine which are the best 
for their particular localities. 

Numerous experiments to test the effectiveness of girdling 



106 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

and root-pruning have been made at the Porto Rico Agricultural 
Experiment Station. C. F. Kinman reports of them: 

" Girdling, branch pruning, and root pruning are common practices, 
but they should be used with caution and moderation, as a tree may 
easily be so severely injured as to prevent its bearing for one or more 
seasons. Pruning back the ends of the branches to induce blossoming 
has been practiced with good results at the station. In the operation, 
from a few inches to a foot of the end of the branch was removed, 
depending upon the stage of maturity of the wood, leaving a few nodes 
from which the leaves had not fallen. From these nodes blossoms 
developed profusely, no blossoms appearing on untreated branches. 
To secure best results, the pruning should be done in the late summer 
or fall, several months before the blossoming time. This method should 
be employed on branches which are too low or too crowded or on 
those which would have to be removed later to improve the shape of 
the tree, as after a branch is pruned it makes little growth for several 
weeks or months or even for a year or more after the fruit ripens, and 
by this time it may be well overgrown by surrounding branches. 

"As good results have been obtained from girdling as from other 
methods. A branch one to three inches in diameter was selected on 
each of a number of trees and a band of bark removed in September. 
These branches produced good crops the following spring, even when no 
fruits at all were borne on the remainder of the tree. Such favorable 
results, however, were obtained on varieties which are inclined to bear 
well and where the band of bark removed was wide enough to prevent 
the new bark from growing over the area too rapidly. Bands one- 
eighth and even one-quarter of an inch in diameter were overgrown so 
quickly that no effect was seen on the branch. Bands from one-half 
to three-quarters of an inch produce the best results, as they do not 
heal over until after the blossoming season, the caUus growing down- 
ward over the wound at the rate of one inch a year. ... As removing 
enough bark to induce fruiting is very injurious to the branch, this 
practice is most profitably employed on undesirable branches which are 
to be removed later. 

" Root pruning has been recommended, although no definite results 
have been noted from the experiments with it. It is best accomplished 
by cutting into the soil with a sharp spade about two feet inside the 
tips of the branches. In extreme eases the cutting may encircle the 
tree to a depth of eight or ten inches in heavy soil and even deeper in 
light soil where the root system is considerably below the surface. 
Cutting at such intervals as to sever the roots for one-half to two- 
thirds of the distance around the tree will induce blossoming under 
normal conditions without seriously checking the growth or thrift of 
the tree." 



THE MANGO 107 

Experience in Florida has shown that girdling, to be effective, 
must be done in late summer. No one yet has had sufficient 
experience to recommend it as an orchard practice. Like 
root-pruning, the use of salt, and several other unusual prac- 
tices, it may prove of decided value when its proper method of 
use has been determined. Every grower should conduct a 
few carefully arranged experiments along such lines as these, 
even though on a limited scale. 

In India, the only pruning usually given the mango consists 
in cutting out dead wood. Since the fruit is produced at the 
ends of the branchlets, general pruning of the top cannot be 
practiced as with northern fruits. In Florida, however, 
several growers have found it desirable to prune out a certain 
number of branches from the center of the tree, so as to keep 
the crown open and admit light and air. 

Propagation 

Like many other fruit-trees, the mango has been propagated 
in the tropics principally by seed. In some instances seedling 
trees produce good fruits; this is particularly true of certain 
races, such as the Manila or Philippine. But in order to 
insure early bearing, productiveness, and uniformity of fruit, 
it is necessary to use vegetative means of propagation. In- 
arching, budding, and grafting are the methods most successfully 
employed. 

The seedling races of the tropics are, so far as has been 
observed, polyembryonic in character. Three to ten plants 
commonly grow from a single seed. Since these develop 
vegetatively from the seed tissues, they are not the product of 
sexual reproduction, but may be compared to buds or cions 
from the parent tree. Most of the grafted Indian varieties, on 
the other hand, have lost this characteristic. When their 
seeds are planted a single young tree develops, and this is 



108 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

found to differ from its parent much as does a seedling avocado 
or a seedling peach. Usually the fruit is inferior, and the tree 
may be quite different in its bearing habits. 

Dr. Bonavia, a medical officer in British India who did much 
to stimulate interest in mango culture, at one time took up 
the question of seedling mangos and wrote several articles 
advocating their wholesale planting. He argued that not only 
would many new varieties, some of them superior in quality, be 
obtained in this way, but also earlier and later fruiting kinds, 
and perhaps some suited to colder climates. 

Just what percentage of seedling mangos will produce good 
fruit depends largely on their parentage. Seedlings of the fibrous 
mangos of the West Indies are invariably poor, while those 
from budded trees of such varieties as Alphonse and Pairi, 
although in most instances inferior or rarely equal or superior 
to the parent, are practically never so poor as the West Indian 
seedlings. At the Saharanpur Botanic Gardens, in northern 
India, some experiments were conducted between 1881 and 
1893 to determine the average character of seedlings from stand- 
ard grafted varieties. The results led to the conclusion that 
seedlings of the Bombay mango were fairly certain to produce 
fruit of good quality. An experimenter in Queensland, at about 
the same time, reported having grown seedlings of Alphonse to 
the fourth generation, all of which came true to the parent type. 

Experience in the United States has shown, however, that 
degeneration is common. A number of seedlings of Mulgoba 
have been grown in Florida, but very few have proved of good 
quality. There is a tendency for the fruits to be more fibrous 
than those of the parent. The whole question is probably one 
of embryogeny. When monoembryonic seeds are planted, 
the fruit is likely to be inferior to that of the parent, if the 
latter was a choice variety; with polyembryonic seeds, even 
though of fine sorts like the Manila, the trees produce fruit 
closely resembling that of the parent. 



THE MANGO 109 

The embryogeny of the mango cannot be discussed at great 
length here. It is not yet thoroughly understood, although it 
has been studied by several investigators. The most recent 
account and the only one which has been undertaken with the 
horticultural problems in mind, is that of John Belling, pub- 
lished in the Report of the Florida Agricultural Experiment 
Station for 1908. Belling says : 

"In the immature seed of the sweet orange E. Strasburger 
has shown by the microscope, and Webber and Swingle have 
proved by their hybridizing experiments that besides the ordi- 
nary embryo which is the product of fertilization, the other 
embryos present in the young or mature seeds arise by the out- 
growth of nucellar cells into the apical part of the embryo-sac. 
The first-mentioned embryo, when present, is liable to any 
variation which is connected with sexual multiplication, — the 
vicinism of H. De Vries. The remaining embryos, on the other 
hand, presumably resemble buds from the tree which bears 
the orange in whose seed they grow, in that they inherit its 
qualities with only a minor degree of variation." 

The behavior of the mango has suggested a similar state of 
affairs. Belling goes on to quote Strasburger's account of the 
embryogeny of the mango, and describes his own investigations : 

"Even in the unopened flower bud the nucellar cells at the 
apex of the embryo sac which are separated from the sac only 
by a layer of flattened cells, are swollen with protoplasm. In 
older fruits it may be noticed that the cells around the apical 
region of the sac except on the side near the raphe are also 
swollen. The adventitious embryos arise from these swollen 
cells, which in fruits 7 mm. long with ovules 3 mm. long divide 
up, sometimes forming the rudiments of a dozen or more em- 
bryos, but often fewer. The nucleated protoplasm on the 
embryo-sac wall is undivided into cells, and is. thick opposite 
the places where embryo formation is going on." 

Belling worked with fruits of the No. 11 mango, seedling 



110 .i/.i\r.i/ ()/■' rixoricM. .wn sli^troi'ical I'lnirs 



rnco of Moriiia iilon(ii,';il with tho I'onunon innn^'o *^1' t^u^ West 
Indies, IMcxico. au^^ rontrnl Amorica. lio was not able to 
deterinino wlioduM- tho i\Ui;-i'i^ll ilo\ c^loj^s iwio ai\ ombryo, or 

whothor all of the oiu- 
bi yos arc advontitioiis, 
- the ou'u-oell boiuii' 
onnviloil (Hit or de- 
stroyed in some other 
way. If the fertilized 
eii'ii-eell de\elops ami is 
representeil in the nia- 
tnre seeil. the plant 
arisinii' from it shonld 
exhibit variation ; bnt 
the seedling- raees are 
so I'lMistant that it 
seems probable that 
the eu'u-eell is lost at 
some stage in the de- 
\ elopment of the fruit, 
and that all of the em- 
bryos are normally 
ad\ entitions. There 
is as yet no proof. 

Fu.. 10. S,HHllin..^ of ^rntuM Indian m«iv«vx. l^^^^V^^^er. that fniitS 

usually- do not vMvdvioo fruit ox;»otl>- liko tho will deN elop on this or 

parout. Iv^oh of tho fruits hoiv shown ivvmv- ,,1,,,. ,,,„,, ^ K,. 

mU.. a «w stvwti tnMU a ^xhhI of the Mv.^.v^U^a ^'^ '^^^ mango-- nnle.s> 

mai\«o. Tho xariations in siiso and shape of the tU^wers are pi^l- 

a^^ notowrtKv. (X |^ hnated. I he Mibjeet 

is an important one 
and will repa\ fnrther investigation. 

It has been observed in Florida that monoembryonie grafted 
varieties, sneh as Mnlgoba. will, when grown from stHxh son\t^ 
times revert to polyembr\on\- in the tirst generation l^Fig. 10). 




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THE MANGO 111 

G. L. Chauveaud^ has advanced the theory that polyembryony 
is a more primitive state than monoembryony, which would 
seem to be borne out by this observation ; for it must be true 
that the choice mangos of India which have been propagated 
by grafting for centuries are less primitive in character than the 
semi-wild seedling races. 

Inarching is an ancient method of vegetative propagation. 
While several writers have attempted to show that it was not 
known in India previous to the arrival of Europeans, and that 
the Jesuits at Goa were the first to apply it to the mango, others 
have held the belief, based on researches in the literature of 
ancient India, that the Hindus propagated their choice mangos 
by inarching for centuries before any Europeans visited the 
country. 

This method of propagation is still preferred to all others 
in India and a few other countries. In the United States it 
has been superseded by budding. 

For the production of stock plants on which to bud or graft 
choice varieties, seeds of any of the common mangos are used. 
No preference for any particular race has yet been established. 
It is reasonable to believe, however, that there may be important 
differences among seedling races in vigor of growth and perhaps 
in their effect on the productiveness and other characteristics of 
the cion. The subject has never been investigated and deserves 
attention. 

Seeds are planted, after having the husk removed, in five- or 
six-inch pots of light soil or in nursery rows in the open ground. 
They are covered with 1 inch or 1| inches of soil. In warm 
weather they will germinate within two weeks, and must be 
watched to prevent the development of more than one shoot. 
Polyembryonic mangos will send up several; all but the 
strongest one should be destroyed. If grown in pots and 
intended for budding, the young plants may be set out in the 
1 Compt. Rend. 114, 1892. 



112 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

field in nursery rows when they are a foot high. If destined 
for inarching they must be kept in pots. 

Inarching is more successful in the hands of the tyro than 
budding or crown-grafting. It can be recommended when only 
a few plants are desired, and when the tree to be propagated is 
in a convenient situation. G. Marshall Woodrow thus de- 
scribes inarching as it is done in India. A slice is cut from the 
side of a small branch on the tree it is desired to propagate, and 
a slice of similar size — 2 to 4 inches long and deep enough to 
expose the cambium — is cut from the stem of a young seedling 
supported at a convenient height upon a light framework of 
poles. The two cut surfaces are bound together with a strip of 
fiber from the stem of the banana, or with some other soft 
bandage. Well-kneaded clay is then plastered over the graft 
to keep out air and water. The soil in the pot must be kept 
moist. After six to eight weeks the cut surfaces will have 
united. 

Inarching may be done at any time in strictly tropical 
climates, but the best time in the hot parts of India is the cool 
season. Toward the northern limits of mango cultivation the 
middle of the rainy season is better. 

The graft is sometimes allowed to remain attached to the 
parent tree for too long a time, with the result that swellings, 
due to the constriction of the bandages, occur at the point of 
union. It is better to remove the grafted plant fairly early 
and place it in the shade for a few weeks. It is detached from 
the parent tree by severing the branch which has been inarched 
to the seedling at a point just below the point of union with the 
latter. This leaves the young branch from the tree it was 
desired to propagate growing upon a seedling; the top of the 
latter is cut out, and the branch from the old tree takes its 
place, ultimately forming the crown of the mature tree. 

The age of the stock is not important. Plants three weeks 
to three years old have been used with success. If kept in pots 



THE MANGO 



113 



too long, however, the plants become pot-bound and lose their 
vigor ; hence it is desirable to graft them when young and get 
them into the open ground as soon as possible. Seeds planted 
in June and July make strong plants ready for inarching by 
November. December „., 



and January are good 
months in which to in- 
arch, and such plants 
should be ready to set 
out in the field by the 
following July. 

Inarching, as practiced 
in other countries, differs 
in no essentials from the 
Indian method above 
described. 

Shield-budding is the 
method employed by 
nurserymen in Florida. 
In the hands of a skillful 
propagator who has made 
a careful study of this 
method, it gives excellent 
results. In inexperi- 
enced hands it usually 
proves altogether unsat- 
isfactory. Particularly 
is experience required to 
enable the propagator to 
recognize the proper type of bud wood, and to know when the 
stock plants are in the proper state of vegetative activity. By 
careful experimenting with stock plants and budwood of 
different conditions of growth throughout a season or two, a 
good propagator should be able to bud mangos successfully; 




Fig. 11. Shield-budding the mango. On 
the left, a bud properly inserted ; next, an 
inserted bud wrapped with a strip of waxed 
cloth ; above the knife-point, a properly cut 
bud ; and on the right, budwood of desirable 
character. 



114 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

but comparatively few men have yet devoted the requisite 
time and study to the subject. Thus there are at present only 
a few propagators in the United States who can produce 
budded mango trees economically and in quantity. 

Various methods of budding, beginning with the patch-bud, 
have been tried at different times, but shield-budding (Fig. 11) 
is the only one which has proved altogether satisfactory for 
nursery purposes. The method is the same as that used with 
citrus fruits and the avocado. Having been less extensively 
practiced, however, mango budding is less thoroughly under- 
stood, and it is not a simple matter to judge the condition of 
the stock plants and the budwood without experience. 

The best season for budding the mango in Florida is generally 
considered to be May and June, but the work is done success- 
fully all through the summer. It is necessary to bud in warm 
weather, when the stock plants are in active growth. 

When seedlings have attained the diameter of a lead-pencil 
they can be budded, although they are commonly allowed to 
grow a little larger than this. The proper time for inserting 
the buds is when the plants are coming into flush, i.e., commenc- 
ing to push out wine-colored new growth. When they are in 
this stage, the bark separates readily from the wood; after 
the new growth has developed further and is beginning to 
lose its reddish color, the bark does not separate so easily and 
budding is less successful. 

The budwood should be taken from the ends of young 
branches, but usually not from the ultimate or last growth ; the 
two preceding growths are better. It is considered important 
that budwood and stock plant be closely similar, in so far as 
size and maturity of wood are concerned. If possible, branch- 
lets from which the leaves have fallen should be chosen. In 
any event, the budwood should be fairly well ripened, and the 
end of the branchlet from which it is taken should not be in 
active growth. 



THE MANGO 115 

The incision is made in the stock plant in the form of a T 
or an inverted T, exactly as in budding avocados or citrus trees. 
The bud should be rather large, preferably li inches in length. 
After it is inserted it should be wrapped with waxed tape or 
other suitable material. A formula for use in preparing waxed 
tape will be found under the head of avocado budding. 

After three to four weeks the bud is examined, and if it 
is green and seems to have formed a union, the top of the 
stock plant is cut back several inches to force the bud into 
growth. A few weeks later the top can be cut back still 
farther, and eventually it may be trimmed off close above the 
bud, — this after the bud has made a growth of 8 or 10 inches. 

J. E. Higgins ^ describes a method of shield-budding which 
has been successful in the Hawaiian Islands. So far as known, 
it has not been used on the mainland of the United States. 
Higgins says, "Budding by this method has been successfully 
performed on stocks from an inch to three inches in diameter. 
. . . Wood of this size, in seedling trees, may be from two to 
five years old. It is essential that the stocks be in thrifty 
condition, and still more essential that they should be in ' flush.' 
If not in this condition, the bark will not readily separate 
from the stock. It has been found that the best time is when 
the terminal buds are just opening. . . . The budwood 
which has been most successfully used is that which has lost 
most of its leaves and is turning brown or gray in color. Such 
wood is usually about an inch in diameter. It is not necessary 
in this method of budding that the budwood shall be in a 
flushing condition, although it may be of advantage to have it 
so. . . . The incision should be made in the stock about six 
inches in length. . . . The bud shield should be three to three 
and a half inches long, with the bud in the center." After- 
treatment of the buds is the same as with the Florida method 
which has been described ; in fact the Hawaiian method seems 
1 Bull. 20, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. 



116 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



distinct only in the size of stock plant and budwood, and the 
consequent larger size of the bud. 

Crown-grafting (Fig. 12) is not commonly practiced in 
Florida, but it has been successful in Porto Rico. It has also 

been employed with 
good results by H. A. 
Van Hermann of San- 
tiago de las Vegas, 
Cuba, and it is said to 
have proved satisfac- 
tory in Hawaii and in 
India. W. E. Hess, 
formerly expert gar- 
dener of the Porto Rico 
Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, who has 
had much experience 
with the method, says 
that it has proved more 
successful in Porto Rico 
than budding, and is at 
the same time superior 
to inarching because of 
the greater rapidity 
with which trees can 
be produced in large 
quantities. As in bud- 
ding, success seems to 
depend mainly on the 
condition of stock and 
cion at the time the graft is made. Provided the stock is in 
flush, the work can be done at any season of the year. For 
cions, tip ends of branchlets are used. They should be of 
about the diameter of a lead-pencil ; of grayish, fully matured, 




Fig. 12. Crown-grafting the mango. On 
the left, two cions of proper size and charac- 
ter ; in the center, a cion inserted and another 
tied in place ; and on the right, the covering of 
waxed paper which protects the cion while it is 
forming a union with the stock. 



THE MANGO 117 

dormant wood ; and from 3 to 5 inches in length. A slanting 
cut 1 to 2 inches long is made on one side, tapering to a point 
at the lower end of the cion. The stock may be of almost 
any size. When young plants are used they are cut back to 1 
foot above the ground, and a slit about 1 inch long is made 
through the bark, extending downward from the top of the 
stump. The cion is then forced in, with its cut surface next to 
the wood, and is tied in place with soft cotton string. No 
wax is used. The graft is inclosed in three or four thicknesses 
of oiled paper which is wound around the stock and tied firmly 
above and below. This is left on for twelve to twenty days, 
when it is untied at the lower end to admit air. Fifteen or 
twenty days later the cions will have begun to grow and the 
paper can be removed entirely. 

This method is applicable not only to nursery stock but also 
to old trees which it is desired to topwork. In this case about 
half of the main branches of the tree should be cut off at three 
or four feet from their union with the trunk. It is necessary 
to leave several branches to keep the tree in active growth; 
this also has a beneficial effect on the grafts by protecting them 
from the sun. When the cions are well established, these 
branches may be removed or they also may be grafted if more 
limbs are necessary to give the tree a good crown. The cions 
are inserted under the bark at the cut ends of the limbs, exactly 
as described for young stocks, but larger cions may be used. 

In Florida many large trees have been topworked by cutting 
off several of the main branches, close to their union with the 
trunk, and allowing a number of sprouts to come out. When 
these have reached the proper size, they are budded in the 
same manner as seedlings. 

Throughout the tropics there are many thousands of seedling 
mango trees which are producing fruit of inferior quality. 
By topworking, these trees could be made to yield mangos of 
the choicest Indian varieties. The work is not difficult and 



118 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

the value of the tree is increased enormously. Perhaps no 
other field in tropical horticulture offers such opportunities 
for immediate results as this. 

The Mango Flower and Its Pollination 

The scanty productiveness of many Indian mangos has 
been attributed by several writers to defective pollination. 
A. C. Hartless, superintendent of the Government Botanical 
Gardens at Saharanpur, India, discussed the matter at some 
length in the Agricultural Journal of India, April, 1914. The 
writer has personally investigated the subject in Florida, and 
the results have been published in Bulletin 
542 of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Burns and Prayag have 
written on the structure and development 
of the mango flower in the Agricultural 
College Magazine, Poona, India, March, 

Fig. 13. A bisexual IQW 
mango flower. (X4) ' 

The mango is polygamous and produces 
its flowers on terminal panicles varying in length from a few 
inches up to two feet. Each panicle carries from 200 or 300 up 
to more than 4000 flowers, of which only 2 or 3 per cent are 
perfect in some varieties, or as many as 60 to 75 per cent 
in others. The character of the panicle and the number of 
flowers produced upon it differs according to the variety. 

The individual flower (Fig. 13) is subsessile, 6 to 8 milli- 
meters in diameter when the corolla is outspread; the calyx 
composed of five ovate-lanceolate, finely pubescent, concave 
sepals ; and corolla of five elliptic-lanceolate to obovate-lance- 
olate petals, 3 to 4 millimeters long, whitish, with three or four 
fieshy orange ridges toward the base, and inserted at the base 
of a fleshy, almost hemispherical disk, obscurely 5-lobed and 
usually about 2 millimeters in diameter. In the perfect flower 




THE MANGO 119 

the disk is surmounted by a globose-oblique ovary 1 millimeter 
broad, with a slender lateral style about 2 millimeters high. 
To one side and inserted upon the disk is the single fertile 
stamen, composed of a slender subulate filament about 1.5 
millimeters long, surmounted by an oval purplish red anther 
0.5 millimeter long, which dehisces longitudinally. Occasionally 
two such stamens are produced. The whorl is completed by 
staminodes of varying prominence, short and subulate in some 
varieties, larger and capitate in others, some even becoming 
fertile and producing a few pollen-grains. In the staminate 
flower the ovary is wanting. 

Several writers have affirmed that the mango is largely if not 
solely wind-pollinated. It seems evident, however, that it 
has none of the characteristics of an anemophilous plant, but, 
on the other hand, presents well-developed adaptations to 
insect pollination. In anemophilous or wind-pollinated flowers, 
the pollen is usually abundant in order to compensate for the 
enormous loss in transport; the pollen-grains are dry and in- 
coherent, so that they may easily be carried by the wind ; and 
the stigmas are commonly bushy and freely exposed, so as to 
have every chance of catching the floating grains. The mango 
shows none of these adaptations. It produces comparatively 
few pollen-grains, often not more than 200 or 300 to an anther. 
These grains show a decided tendency to cling together, espe- 
cially in damp weather; and even in dry sunny weather it is 
difficult to dislodge them with a strong draft of air. The stigma 
is small and not provided with projections of any sort to assist 
in catching pollen. 

The production of nectar for the attraction of insects also 
indicates that the mango is entomophilous. Observations 
have shown that the flowers are visited by numerous insects 
of the orders Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleop- 
tera, ranking in the order given as to the number of visits. 
Pollen-grains have been observed adhering to the bodies of many 
species belonging to these orders. 



120 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

In spite of numerous insect visits, however, a large number 
of the stigmas are never polHnated, and it seems probable that 
very little pollen is transferred from one flower to another. 
Most of the stigmas receive their pollen from the anther (rarely 
is more than one fertile) of the same flower. Cross-pollination 
is in all probability uncommon. In damp cloudy weather the 
pollen-grains swell and are much more difficult to dislodge than 
when the weather is dry and sunny. After a heavy dew they 
will be found in this swollen condition, but when the sun comes 
out they return to their normal dry form. Protection of the 
flowers from dew and rain by means of a canvas shelter did not 
increase the production of fruit in the case of an experiment 
carried out in Florida. 

Sometimes there is considerable differentiation in the size 
of the pollen-grains. In most varieties the larger number, 
however, are uniform in shape and size, plump and apparently 
perfect. They can be germinated in sugar solution of the proper 
density, and there is nothing to suggest that impotency is 
common. 

From the fact that pollination ordinarily is scanty, it might 
be assumed that productiveness could be increased by making 
it more abundant. This has not, however, been found to be 
the case, except when the pollen was obtained from a tree of a 
different variety (cross-pollination) ; under these conditions 
there was a somewhat better yield. The total number of 
flowers produced is so enormous that it is of little importance 
whether all are pollinated or not. Seedling mangos, which are 
not pollinated more abundantly than budded varieties, nor 
furnished with a greater number of anthers, nor, so far as can 
be ascertained, with pollen of greater potency, often set many 
more fruits than they can carry to maturity. This has been 
noted also with several grafted kinds, such as Bennett and 
Cambodiana. 

Sometimes the entire tree comes into bloom at one time, 



THE MANGO 121 

covering itself with flowers; again, one side of the tree may 
flower, while the other shows no buds; or the flowering may 
be confined to a small section of the tree, probably the branch- 
lets arising from one large limb. This behavior of the mango 
corresponds to the growth habit of the tree which is mentioned 
but not explained by A. F. W. Schimper.^ When one side of 
the tree flowers independently, it might be expected that the 
remainder would flower at another time, but this is not always 
the case. 

Some varieties develop all their flowers within ten days after 
the first buds open ; others, such as Sandersha and Julie, push 
out flower-panicles during a period of several weeks, or even 
months ; thus, in 1915 there was not a single day between the 
middle of January and the latter part of May on which flowers 
could not be found on the old Sandersha tree in the Plant 
Introduction Garden at Miami, Florida. This feature is of 
importance in that it gives the tree a greater opportunity to 
set fruit. Often the attacks of the anthracnose fungus are 
severe when the tree is in bloom, and the entire crop of flowers 
is destroyed. In some varieties this means a crop failure, since 
the tree will not produce any more flowers that season ; but 
in the Sandersha (if early in the season) it need mean only the 
loss of the flowers which were present at that particular time. 
Those developed later might enjoy more favorable weather, 
with consequent freedom from the anthracnose peril, and a 
crop of fruit would result. Anthracnose, one of the greatest 
enemies of the mango, is discussed under the heading pests 
and diseases. 

Some varieties which fruit heavily are characterized by a 
high percentage of perfect flowers. Others which are known to 
be unusually regular in fruiting, although they may not produce 
such heavy crops, have relatively few perfect flowers. The 
Philippine race of seedlings, which sometimes bears heavily, 
^ Plant Geography. 



122 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

commonly has more perfect than staminate flowers. Most of 
the Indian varieties have fewer perfect flowers than the seedling 
races. 

The experiments conducted in Florida indicate that the scanty 
fruiting of many varieties is not due to any morphological defect 
in the pollen or to defects in the mechanism of pollination. 
While such factors as lack of pollinating insects and loss of 
pollen through rains or moist weather probably lessen the 
production of fruit in some seasons, from a practical standpoint 
the question of pollination seems relatively unimportant. 
The problem is more probably a physiological one, connected 
with nutritional conditions as influenced by changes in soil- 
moisture and food-supply, principally the former. Suggestions 
are given under the heading culture for encouraging the 
formation of fruit-buds on soils or under climatic conditions 
which normally tend to produce vegetative growth to the 
detriment of reproduction. 

The Crop 

In the tropics seedling mangos usually come into bearing 
four to six years from the time of planting. More time than 
this may be required jn some instances. Certain races are 
more precocious than others. In Florida, growth is less rapid 
than in the tropics and fruiting is delayed in consequence. 

Budded trees should fruit at an earlier age than seedlings. 
As regards a given variety or race, they usually do so ; but 
grafted or budded trees of some varieties do not fruit so early as 
seedlings of certain races. In Florida, dwarf kinds such as 
D'Or and Julie sometimes fruit the second year after planting. 
Haden has produced good crops four years from planting. 
Mulgoba should fruit at four to six years of age. Malda and 
several other sorts have been grown in Florida ten years or 
more without having fruited as yet. At Saharanpur, India, 



THE MANGO 



123 



A. C. Hartless has found that it commonly requires four to nine 
years for inarched trees to come into bearing. 

The yield of many budded varieties is uncertain, while of 
many seedling races it is uniformly heavy. Seedling trees in 
Cuba and other parts of tropical America often carry as much 
fruit as the branches will support. Budded mangos sometimes 
bear heavily one season and nothing the next. The following ta- 
ble prepared by A. C. Hartless shows the behavior of the orchard 
of grafted trees in the Botanical Garden at Saharanpur, India, 
during a period of twenty-seven years. Numerous varieties are 
included ; and it is probable that some bore more regularly than 
others ; but the table takes account of the crop as a whole : 

Table III. Showing the Bearing op Mango Trees 



Year 


Character op 
Crop 


Yeah 


Character of 
Crop 


Year 


Character of 
Crop 


1886 


Fair 


1895 


Extremely light 


1904 


Very heavy 


1887 


Almost a failure 


1896 


Very light 


1905 


Light 


1888 


Good 


1897 


Fair 


1906 


Good 


1889 


Complete failure 


1898 


Excellent 


1907 


Very light 


1890 


Light 


1899 


Fair 


1908 


Good 


1891 


Poorest on record 


1900 


Below average 


1909 


Very poor 


1892 


Heavy 


1901 


Very light 


1910 


Very poor 


1893 


Heavy 


1902 


Fair 


1911 


Poor 


1894 


Very light 


1903 


Very light 


1912 


Excellent 



Records from Lucknow, India, show that during a period of 
thirty years there were nineteen in which the crop was poor, 
six in which it was fair, and five in which it was heavy. At 
Nagpur during a period of nine years there were six in which 
the crop was poor and three in which it was good. 

In Florida Mulgoba has, up to the present, produced a good 
crop about once in four years. 

These figures would be discouraging, were it not for the 



124 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

certainty that much can be done to increase the HkeHhood of 
good crops by attending to cultural details and by planting 
varieties known to be productive. The extensive tests which 
have been made in Florida have brought to light a number 
of choice sorts which combine excellent quality of fruit with a 
degree of productiveness far above the average. Amini^ for 
example, has borne much more regularly than Mulgoba. In 
Porto Rico also it has done remarkably well. Sandersha has 
produced a fair crop nearly every year, Cambodiana has also 
given a good account of itself. Pairi has fruited much more 
regularly than Mulgoba and is almost as good in quality. 
When reasonably productive kinds are planted, and their 
cultural requirements are thoroughly understood, such records 
as that of Saharanpur should no longer be encountered. 

The varieties now grown in Florida supply the market with 
ripe fruit from July to October. The main season is August 
and September. Cambodiana is one of the earliest varieties. 
Sandersha is probably the latest. A few of its fruits ripen as 
late as the fu'st half of October. In India a kind known as 
Baramassia (more likely a number of different mangos known 
under the same name) is said to mature fruits throughout most 
of the year, doing this by producing two or three light crops. 
It is probable, however, that many statements regarding this 
variety are exaggerated, for it seems to be known much better 
by reputation than by the personal experience of those who 
describe it. A variety in northern India, Bhaduria, ripens 
later than most others. In this part of India the mango season 
extends from May to October. 

The Indian method of picking and ripening the mango, and 
the type of carrier employed in shipping the fruit, are described 
by G. Marshall Woodrow. He says : 

" The mango is gathered as soon as the fruit comes away freely in 
the hand. . . . When gathered too early the sap exudes freely, does 
not agglutinate, and the fruit shrivels. The collection of the fruit 



THE MANGO 125 

should be by hand as far as practicable ; a bag-net with the mouth 
distended by a circle of cane, and suspended by a strap from the 
shoulder, leaves both hands free to gather. None must be allowed 
to fall to the ground ; all should be handled as gently as eggs because 
a slight bruise brings on decay quickly. To bring down the higher 
fruit a bag-net 15 inches in depth, the mouth distended by a circle 
of cane, traversed by and bound to a light bamboo and having a piece 
of hoop iron bound across the mouth of the bag at right angles to the 
bamboo forms an efficient apparatus for the purpose ; the hoop iron 
breaks the stalk, and the fruit falls into the net and is gently lowered 
to the ready baskets. It is then carried to the fruit room and arranged 
in single layers, with soft dry grass above and below. The room must 
be well ventilated and cool, yet not subject to decided changes of tem- 
perature ; a moist atmosphere hastens ripening and decay, coolness 
and fresh air retard destructive changes. 

" For transport, small baskets fit to contain a dozen mangos should 
be provided, each with a lid and some hay for packing at top and 
bottom. Each basket should be filled so as to prevent motion of the 
fruit, choice specimens being separately wrapped in soft paper. 
Twelve small baskets may be packed firmly into one large one, and 
the load becomes sufficient for a man to carry when the basket has 
been raised on to his head. By this means bruised and damaged fruit 
is reduced to the lowest terms, and repacking for distribution is 
avoided." 

A. C. Hartless of Saharanpur says : "It is a common practice 
here to ripen the fruit artificially. This is done to save the 
expense of watching and protecting from predatory animals 
and birds. When the fruits attain the desired size they are 
taken off and packed in straw in closed boxes where they will 
ripen. The taste may in this way differ slightly from those 
ripened on the tree, but it is not uncommon for the fruits on 
the same tree to differ materially in taste." C. Maries reports 
that the variety Mohur Thakur is ripened on the tree at Dar- 
bhanga, small bamboo baskets being placed around the fruits to 
keep flies and moths from eating them. When the basket 
falls to the ground the fruit is ripe and ready for eating. 

Some varieties will keep much longer after picking than 
others. William Burns/ in his article on the Pairi mango, 

1 Agricultural Journal of India, p. 27, 1911. 



126 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



says that Alphonse can be kept two months, if properly stored. 
Pairi, on the other hand, will only remain in good condition 
for eight days. C. F. Kinman points out that the Indian 
mangos have proved to be much better keepers in Porto Rico 
than the native seedlings. The flavor and keeping quality of a 
fruit depend, of course, largely on the degree of maturity at 
which it is picked. For local use the fruit, with the exception 
of Sandersha, should be allowed to color fully and to soften 
slightly on the tree, while for shipping to market it must be 
picked before it is fully colored. Some varieties, such as Amini, 

develop an objectionable 
flavor if left on the tree 
until fully ripe. 

From Florida the In- 
dian varieties have been 
shipped successfully to 
northern markets (Fig. 
14). The fruit is picked 
when it has begun to 
acquire color, but before 
it has softened in the 
slightest degree. It is 
then wrapped in tissue- 
paper of the kind used in shipping citrus fruits, and is packed 
in tomato baskets. Mangos of moderate size, such as Mulgoba, 
will pack twelve to a basket. A small amount of excelsior is 
used above and below them. Six of these baskets are placed in 
a crate for shipment. Sometimes tomato baskets are dispensed 
with and the fruit is packed in a crate with a partition in the 
center, using an abundance of excelsior between each tier or 
layer. 

Numerous storage tests have been made at the Porto Rico 
Agricultural Experiment Station (Bull. 24). Mangos of 
different varieties were placed in (a) warm storage at 80 to 




Fig. 14. 



Florida-grown mangos packed for 
shipment. 



THE MANGO 127 

83° F., and (6) cold storage at 40 to 47° F. Some of the 
results were as follows : 

Amini. — Fruits which were ready for eating when taken from the 
tree remained in the warm room in good condition about four days. 
Fruits which were well colored but had not softened on the tree began 
to decay in seven to ten days. AU of these fruits developed attrac- 
tive color in storage. In the cool room fruits which were ready for 
eating when removed from the tree remained in good condition eleven 
to eighteen days. Those which were mature when taken from the 
tree, but which had not commenced to soften, were ready for eating 
twenty days after being put in storage, and did not show signs of decay 
until six days later. 

Cambodiana. — Fruits which had fallen from the tree due to ripe- 
ness remained in the warm room five days in good condition. Those 
which were picked when soft on one side remained six to eight days 
without decajdng perceptibly. Those picked when about half colored 
remained in good condition eight days only. Fruits ripened on the 
tree and placed in the cool room kept only five or six days. Those 
which had colored on the tree but had not begun to soften were ripe 
nineteen days after being placed in the cool room, and remained in 
good condition until the twenty-sixth day; they were not so good, 
however, as those ripened on the tree. 

Sandersha. — Fruits picked just before they began to soften and 
placed in the warm room were ready for eating nine days later, and 
remained in good condition three days. Fruits picked similarly 
mature and placed in the cool room remained in good condition for 
nearly five weeks, at the end of which time the flavor was better than 
that of tree-ripened specimens. 

"Fancy" mangos have been shipped successfully from India 
to London, from Jamaica to London, and from the French 
West Indies to Paris. When care is used in packing and 
picking the fruit, the loss in transit is not heavy. The selection 
of varieties having unusually good shipping qualities will do 
more than anything else to encourage export trade of this sort. 
When the fruit has only to be shipped from Florida to New 
York, keeping quality is not so important. Some mangos 
which have been placed on the market have made an unfavor- 
able impression because they were improperly ripened. More 
attention must be given to methods of ripening in the future. 



128 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

so that the fruit may reach the consuraer in full possession 
of its delightful flavor and aroma. 

Pests and Diseases 

The commonest and most troublesome enemy of the mango 
in tropical America is anthracnose. This is a parasitic fungus 
{Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.) which attacks many 
different plants, and is particularly known as the cause of 
wither-tip in citrus fruits. It is a species of wide distribution 
which springs up with no evident center of infection whenever 
the weather is warm and moist. On the flowers and flower- 
stalks of the mango it appears in the form of small blackish 
spots. Often it causes many of the flowers to drop. On the 
leaves, spots and sometimes holes are produced; these begin 
as minute black dots and enlarge until they are about an eighth 
of an inch in diameter. Young fruits may be attacked and 
made to drop in large numbers, while older fruits become spotted 
with black or streaked, and their keeping qualities are impaired. 

S. M. McMurran, who studied anthracnose control methods 
in Florida and reported his results in Bulletin 52 of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, says : 

" Spraying before the buds begin to grow is of no value so far as 
protecting the inflorescence, and later the young fruit, is concerned. 
These must be kept covered with the fungicide (Bordeaux mixture) 
while growing, if fungous invasion is to be prevented. The difficulty 
of so protecting the inflorescence is at once apparent. Elongations of 
the panicle continue for a period ranging from 10 to 15 days. Those 
which were sprayed every third day were practically aU disease-free 
when the flowers began to open. This, however, required four spray- 
ings in one ease and six in the other. Those sprayed every fourth 
day showed but little more disease than those sprayed every third day, 
but those on which the spray was applied at flve and six day intervals 
had traces of disease, showing that they were less perfectly protected. 

" The spraying of the inflorescence at least three times, beginning 
when the buds are just swelling and repeated every fourth day until 
the flowers open, will help to prevent the dropping of fruit caused by 
the disease on the peduncles and pedicels. 



THE MANGO 129 

" The inflorescence may be kept in a clean condition up to the time 
of blooming ; but, when this takes place, immediately there are 
hundreds of points which are not covered by the fungicide and are 
open to infection . . . spraying is of Little or no value in controlling 
the blossom blight form of the disease, and profitable sets of fruit 
can be expected only during seasons which are dry at blooming time, 
unless varieties which are resistant to the disease are developed and 
cultivated." 

This disease is a serious obstacle to the production of market- 
able mangos in the West Indies. J. B. Rorer/ who conducted 
spraying experiments in Trinidad, found, however, that "All 
of the sprayed trees set more fruit than the control trees, and 
the greater part of the fruit ripened without infection, while 
the fruit on unsprayed trees was for the greater part spotted 
or tear-streaked. The fruit from sprayed trees matured a 
little later than that from the unsprayed and was somewhat 
larger in size. The foliage of sprayed trees was much heavier 
than that of the unsprayed." If fruit is not sprayed to keep it 
clean while it is developing, it not only is less attractive when 
placed on the market, but is subject to decay. 

Anthracnose does not appear to be mentioned by Indian 
writers on mango culture. It is known, however, to be serious 
in Hawaii as well as in tropical America. Bordeaux mixture 
used in its control can be made according either to the 4-6-50 
or the 5-5-50 formula, using a small amount of whale-oil soap 
to make it adhere more tenaciously to the foliage. 

Ethel M. Doidge, in the Annals of Applied Biology (1915) 
describes a disfiguring and rotting disease of mangos which 
occurs in South Africa. It is caused by Bacillus mangifercc, 
an organism which is carried by water or may be transported 
from tree to tree by the wind. Woody tissues are not affected, 
but small angular water-soaked areas appear on leaves, longi- 
tudinal cracks are produced on petioles, and discolored spots 
on twigs and branches ; while on the fruit the first sign of the 
disease is a small discolored spot. This spreads, becoming 
1 Trinidad and Tobago BuU. 5, 1915. 



130 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT^ 

intersected with cracks, and may extend some distance into the 
flesh. No means of controlling this bacterial disease has yet 
been discovered. 

Of the insects which attack the mango, the fruit-flies (Trype- 
tidse) rank first in importance. Belonging to this family are 
the Mediterranean fruit-fly {Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann), 
which has become a very serious pest in Hawaii and several 
other regions ; the Queensland fruit-fly (Batrocera tryoni 
Froggatt), distributed throughout Malaysia and Australia; the 
mango fruit-fly {Dacus ferrugineus Fabricius), which occurs 
from India to the Philippines; the Mexican fruit-fly {Anas- 
trepha ludens Loew) ; and Anastrepha fratercvlus Wiedemann, 
another Mexican species, now distributed throughout Central 
and South America and the West Indies. Several other 
species have also been reported as attacking the mango. The 
females of these flies insert their eggs beneath the skin or in 
the flesh of the fruit, and the larvae render it unflt for human 
consumption. Control is difficult; the sweetened arsenical 
sprays have met with varied success, and control by means 
of parasites is receiving attention. 

In some parts of India the mango hopper (various species of 
Idiocerus) is troublesome. H. Maxwell-Lefroy ^ writes : 

"These insects resemble the Cicadas superficially but are 
much smaller, being one-sixth of an inch in length. They are 
somewhat wedge-shaped with wings sloped at an angle over 
the back. Large numbers are found on the mango trees 
throughout the hot weather but especially at the flowering 
season when there is a flow of sap to the flowering shoots. 
These insects pass through their active life on the tree, sucking 
the juice of the soft shoots and causing them to wither. . . . 
There is only one effective treatment which must be adopted 
vigorously. This is spraying with strong contact poison such 
as crude oil emulsion or sanitary fluid." 
1 Indian Insect Pests. 



THE MANGO 131 

Another serious pest in India is the mango weevil {Sternoche- 
tus mangifercB Fabricius, better known as Cryptorhynchus 
mangiferas)^ It is not limited to India, but is found also in 
the Straits Settlements, the Philippines, South Africa, and 
Hawaii. In the last-named country it has become formidable, 
"The insect is a short, thick-set weevil, dark brown in color, 
one-third of an inch in length. . . . The grubs bore in the 
kernels of the mango fruit when it is growing large; these 
grubs pupate inside the fruit and as the mango ripens become 
beetles, eating their way out through the pulp of the fruit, 
which they spoil." Maxwell-Lefroy recommends that all 
infested fruits be destroyed, and that weevils hiding in the 
bark of the tree be killed in August. Kerosene emulsion is 
useful in destroying those which are on the bark. It is also 
advisable to cultivate or flood the ground beneath the trees, 
in order to kill weevils which may be lurking there. 

In Florida, red-spiders and thrips are responsible for exten- 
sive injury to foliage, leading to disturbances of the general 
health of the trees; but contact sprays, e.g., lime-sulfur or 
nicotine, properly applied, will effect complete eradication. 
The mango bark-borer {Ploccederus ruficornis Newman) is 
a formidable enemy of the mango in the Philippines. This is 
a large beetle. C. R. Jones ^ says of it : 

"The mango bark borer, while a comparatively unknown 
pest outside the vicinity of Manila, is exceedingly dangerous, 
largely on account of its feeding habits, which make detection 
difficult. The beetle has, so far as we know, no natural enemies, 
being fully protected both in the larval and pupal stages. 
Physical remedies are, therefore, necessary, such as the removal 
of larvse and pupae from their burrows by hand." 

The mango shoot psylla {Psylla cistellata Buckton) is re- 
ported only from India. "It injures the terminal shoots by 
producing imbricated pseudo-cones of a bright green or yellow 
1 Philippine Biir. Agr. Giro. No. 20. 



132 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

color in which the larval and pupal stages are passed." Dino- 
derus distinctus is a beetle which attacks branches of the 
mango in India. Sternochetus gravis is the mango weevil 
of northern India, similar to the common mango weevil 
described above. These and many other insects reported as 
attacking the mango in various parts of the world are described 
in "A Manual of Dangerous Insects," published by the United 
States Department of Agriculture (1917). The scale insects 
are particularly numerous, and cannot be listed here. Several 
of them are common in the mango orchards of Florida. The 
genera Aspidiotus, Chionaspis, Coccus, Pulvinaria, and Saissetia 
are well represented in different parts of the world. Generally 
speaking, their control by spraying is relatively simple. 

Races and Varieties 

The classification of mangos must be considered from two 
distinct standpoints. First, there are numerous seedling 
races; and second, there are horticultural groups of varieties 
propagated by grafting or budding. 

The seedling races have not been studied in all parts of the 
tropics. Most of those in America are now fairly well known, 
but they, are probably few compared to those of the Asiatic 
tropics. The latter region has not been explored thoroughly. 

So far as known, all the seedling races are polyembryonic. 
Individuals reproduce the racial characteristics with remarkable 
constancy. Numerous writers have said that these races (in- 
correctly termed varieties) come true from seed, and that there 
is no need of grafting or budding. There is enough variation 
among the seedlings, however, to make some of them more 
desirable than others. When one has been propagated by 
budding or grafting it becomes a true horticultural variety. 

The classification of mangos has been discussed by Burns 
and Prayag in the Agricultural Journal of India (1915) ; by 




o 

CZ2 

a 

a 

o 

a 



PL, 



THE MANGO 133 

P. H. Rolfs in Bulletin 127, Florida Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station; and by the author in the Proceedings of the 
American Pomological Society for 1915 and 1917. 

The abundance of grafted mangos has led Indian investiga- 
tors to neglect the seedling races. Doubtless some of the 
horticultural groups of grafted varieties represent seedling 
races. C. Maries, in the Dictionary of the Economic Products of 
India, grouped the named varieties with which he was familiar 
in five "cultivated races." Probably some of these represent 
seedling races. The antiquity of its culture in India and the 
extensive employment of vegetative means of propagation have 
placed the mango on a different footing from that which it 
occupies in regions where it has been grown relatively a short 
time and propagated principally by seed. In India, the horti- 
cultural varieties are most prominent; elsewhere, seedling 
races (see definition of a race in the discussion of avocado races) 
are more in evidence. 

The mangos of the Malayan Archipelago have been less 
thoroughly studied, from a pomological standpoint, than those 
of any other region. The botanist Blume (Museum Botanicum 
Lugduno-Batavum) viewed them botanically, and described as 
botanical varieties a number of forms which are in all probability 
analogous to the seedling races of other regions. In addition to 
races, there are a number of distinct species of Mangifera in the 
Malayan region which bear fruits closely resembling true mangos. 
These must be studied in connection with, any attempt to 
straighten out the classification of horticultural or pomological 
forms. 

Cochin-China appears to be the home of a race of mangos 
which is unusual in character, and which is certainly one of the 
most valuable of all. This is the Cambodiana. By some botan- 
ists it is considered a distinct species of Mangifera. It seems 
to be identical with the race grown in the Philippine Islands. 
The latter has been carried to tropical America, where it is 



134 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

known as Manila (Mexico) and Filipino (Cuba) . David Fair- 
child, who studied this race in Saigon, Cochin-China, and intro- 
duced it into the United States, describes it as a mango of 
medium size, yellow when ripe, furnished with a short beak, 
and having a faint but agreeable odor. The flesh varies from 
light to deep orange in color, and is never fibrous. The flavor is 
not so rich as that of the Alphonse, but is nevertheless delicious. 
One of the plants grown from the seed sent to the United States 
by Fairchild has given rise to the horticultural variety Cam- 
bodiana, now propagated vegetatively in Florida. 

There appear to be several different forms of this race. 
Three forms are grown in the Philippines, where they are dis- 
tinguished by separate names. P. J. Wester states : 

"There are three very distinct types of mangos in the Philip- 
pines : the Carabao, the Pico (also known as Padero), and the 
Pahutan, in some districts called Supsupen and Chupadero. 
The Carabao is the mango most esteemed and most generally 
planted." He further says, "Although uniform as types, there 
is considerable variation in the form and size of the fruit and 
presence of fiber and size of seed in both the Carabao and Pico 
mangos, and careful selection will not only bring to light 
varieties much larger than the average fruit of these types, but 
also those having a much smaller percentage of fiber and seed 
than the average fruit." 

The seedling mangos of the Hawaiian Islands have been given 
some attention by Higgins. In Bulletin 12 of the Hawaii Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station he describes a number of them. 
Judging from his illustration, the Hawaiian Sweet mango is the 
common seedling race of the West Indies. 

The French island of Reunion is said to be the source of 

several seedling races which have been introduced into tropical 

America. Paul Hubert ^ says the mango has become thoroughly 

naturalized in this island. He mentions thirteen varieties 

^ Fruits des Pays Chauds. 



THE MANGO 135 

which are the most common ; the names of several are the same 
as those of well-known varieties in the French West Indies. 

Little is known of the mangos cultivated on the African 
coast and in Madagascar. 

The seedling races of Cuba and those of Florida are prac- 
tically the same, seeds having carried from the former region 
to the latter. The principal race is the one known in Cuba as 
mango (in contradistinction to manga, the race second in im- 
portance), and in Florida as No. 11. This is the common race 
of Mexico and many other parts of tropical America. For 
convenience it may be termed the West Indian. The tree is 
erect, 60 to 70 feet in height, with an open crown. The panicle 
is 8 to 12 inches long, with the axis reddish maroon in color. 
The fruit is strongly compressed laterally, with curved and 
beaked apex. It is yellow in color, often blushed with crimson ; 
the fiber is long and coarse, and the quality of the fruit poor, 
although the flavor is very sweet. 

The manga race of Cuba is less widely grown in other regions, 
although it is well represented in Florida. The tree is spreading, 
35 to 40 feet high, with a dense round-topped crown. The 
panicle is 6 to 10 inches long, stout, pale green in color, often 
tinged with red. The fruit is plump, not beaked, yellow in 
color, with long, fine fibers through the flesh. Two forms of 
this race are common, manga amarilla and manga hlanca. The 
former, known in Florida as turpentine or peach mango, has an 
elongated fruit, deep orange yellow in color, with bright orange 
flesh. The latter, known in Florida as apple or Bombay 
mango, has a roundish oblique fruit, bright yellow in color with 
whitish yellow flesh. 

The Filipino (Philippine) race probably reached Cuba from 
Mexico, and thence was carried to Florida. It is the most 
delicious and highly esteemed of seedling mangos in all of these 
regions. Indeed, it ranks in quality with many of the choice 
grafted varieties from India. The tree is erect, 30 to 35 feet 



136 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

high, with a dense oval crown. The panicle is 12 to 24 inches 
long, pale green, sometimes tinged with red. The fruit is 
strongly compressed laterally, sharply pointed rather than 
curved or beaked at the apex, lemon-yellow in color, with deep 
yellow flesh almost free from fiber. In Florida there are com- 
paratively few trees of this race. 

In addition to the above, there are several other races of 
limited distribution in Cuba. The biscochuelo mango of 
Santiago de Cuba is an excellent fruit, worthy of propagation 
in other regions. The mango Chino of the Quinta Aviles at 
Cienfuegos (a remarkable mango orchard established years ago) 
is a large fruit always in great demand in Habana markets. 
It is not, however, of rich flavor or fine quality. Manga mamey, 
also of the Quinta Aviles at Cienfuegos is of better quality than 
mango Chino, but is not so well known in Habana. 

In Jamaica the No. 11 race is esteemed above most other 
seedlings. It had its origin in one of the grafted trees found 
on a captured French vessel and brought to the island in 1782, 
as related on a foregoing page. 

The seedling races of Porto Rico have been treated in detail 
by G. N. Collins ^ and more recently by C. F. Kinman. The 
most prolific and popular race is known as mango bianco. The 
mangotina is found near Ponce ; it is rather inferior in quality. 
The redondo is a seven-ounce fruit, lacking in richness. The 
largo has a small oval fruit with much fiber. The name piiia is 
applied to several distinct forms, the commonest being a long 
fruit of inferior quality. None of these Porto Rican forms 
seems to merit propagation. 

In Mexico the principal races are the common West Indian, 
and the Manila or Filipino. The latter is grown principally in 
the state of Vera Cruz. Its culture should be extended to other 
parts of the country, as well as to other tropical countries where 
it is not now grown. 

1 BuU. 28, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



THE MANGO 137 

There is one race in Brazil which is of exceptional value. This 
is the manga da rosa (rose mango), grown commercially in the 
vicinity of Pernambuco and to a less extent at Bahia and Rio 
de Janeiro. While frequently propagated by grafting, it is 
polyembryonic and should come true to race when grown from 
seed. It is heart-shaped, slightly beaked, and of good size. Its 
coloring is unusually beautiful. The fiber is coarse and rather 
long, but not so troublesome as in many seedling races. The 
flavor is rich and pleasant. This mango is believed to have 
been brought to Brazil from Mauritius. The espada race of 
Brazil is of little value : its fruit is slender, curved at both ends, 
green in color, and of poor quality. 

The horticultural varieties of the mango are numerous. C. 
Maries reported having collected nearly 500, of which 100 were 
good. Many of these were, however, of limited distribution 
and little importance. More recent Indian writers catalog 
from 100 to 200 varieties. The author has published in the 
Pomona College Journal of Economic Botany (December, 1911) 
a descriptive list of about 300, which includes the best-known 
from all parts of the world. Some of these, however, are prob- 
ably seedling races, not horticultural varieties propagated by 
grafting or budding. Many writers have made no distinction 
between races, in which the seedlings reproduce the character- 
istics of the parent, and varieties, which can be propagated only 
by vegetative means. 

The confusion which involves mango nomenclature in India 
is rather appalling. There can be no doubt that in numerous 
cases the same name is applied to several distinct varieties, and 
it is equally certain that one variety in some instances has 
several different names. In addition, some of the kinds cata- 
logued by Indian nurserymen probably never existed outside 
of their own imaginations. There are only a few varieties which 
are well known and highly esteemed in India. Most of these 
have been introduced into the mango-growing regions of the 



138 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Western Hemisphere by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant 
Introduction of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
The varieties described in the following pages are the best 
which have been tested in Florida up to the present. Most of 
them are well-known Indian sorts. They are few in number, but 
it is not possible to include in such a work as this a fully com- 
plete list. The classification here made into groups based on 
natural resemblances throws related varieties together and 
should aid the prospective planter to gain an idea of the more 
salient characteristics of each. Only the most important 
varieties in each group are described. 

Mulgoba growp. 

In this group the tree is usually erect, with a broad, dense 
crown. The leaves are slender, smaller (especially in the 
variety Mulgoba) than in some of the other groups, the primary 
transverse veins 22 to 24 pairs, moderately conspicuous. The 
panicle is usually slender, frequently drooping, 12 to 18 inches 
in length, the axis and laterals varying from pale green tinged 
pink to rose pink, the pubescence heavier than in most other 
groups. The flowers are usually very abundant on the panicle. 
The staminodes are strongly developed, often capitate, one or 
two sometimes fertile. In general, varieties of this group re- 
quire the stimulus of dry weather to make them flower pro- 
fusely, and they show a decided tendency to drop most of their 
fruits. Haden, however, holds its fruits well. The fruit is 
usually oval. It varies in color from dull green to yellow 
blushed red, and lacks a distinct beak. The flesh is deep 
yellow to orange-yellow, variable in quality. The seed is 
normally monoembryonic. 

Mulgoba (Fig. 15). — Form oblong ovate to ovate, laterally com- 
pressed ; size medium to above medium, weight 91 to 14| ounces, 
length 3| to 41 inches, breadth 3 to 3| inches, base flattened, with 
the stem inserted obliquely in a very shallow cavity; apex rounded 



THE MANGO 



139 




Fig. 15. The Mulgoba mango. (X f) 



to broadly pointed, the nak a small point on the ventral surface about 
^ inch above the longitudinal apex ; surface slightly undulating, deep 
to apricot-yellow in color, sometimes overspread with scarlet around 
base and on exposed side, dots 
few to numerous, small, lighter 
in color than surface ; skin 
thick, tough, tenacious, flesh 
bright orange-yellow, smooth 
and fine in texture, with a 
pronounced and very agreeable 
aroma, very juicy, free from 
fiber, and of I'ich piquant fla- 
vor ; quality excellent ; seed 
oblong to oblong-rerdform, 
plump, with sparse, stiff, short 
fibers J inch long over the sur- 
face. Season in Florida July 
to September. 

Introduced into the United 
States in 1889 from Poona, India, by the United States Department 
of Agriculture. This was the first grafted Indian variety to fruit in 
the United States. In attractive coloring, delicate aromatic flavor, 
and freedom from fiber, Mulgoba is scarcely excelled, but it has proved 
irregular in its fruiting habits and for this reason cannot be recom- 
mended for commercial planting expect in regions with dry climates. 
The tree does not come into bearing at an early age. The name 
Mulgoba (properly Malghoba) is taken from that of a native Indian 
dish, and means " makes the mouth water." 

Haden (Fig. 16). — Form oval 
to ovate, plump ; size large to 
very large, weight 15 to 20 
ounces, sometimes up to 24 
ounces, length 4 to 51 inches, 
breadth 3i to 4| inches, base 
rounded, the stem inserted al- 
most squarely without depres- 
sion ; apex rounded to broadly 
pointed, the nak depressed, f 
inch above the longitudinal 
apex ; surface smooth, light to 
deep apricot-yellow in color, 
overspread with crimson-scarlet, 
dots numerous, large whitish yellow in color, skin very thick and tough ; 
flesh yellowish orange in color, firm, very juicy, fibrous only close to the 
seed, and of sweet, rich, moderately piquant flavor ; quality good ; seed 




Fig. 16. The Haden mango. (X |) 



140 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

oblong, plump, with considerable fiber along the ventral edge and a 
few short stiff bristles elsewhere. Season in Florida July and August. 
Originated at Coconut Grove, Florida, as a seedling of Mulgoba. 
First propagated in 1910. The fruit is not so fine as that of Mulgoba, 
but the tree is a stronger grower, comes into fruit at an early age, and 
bears more regularly. 

Alphonse group. 

The trees of this group are usually broad and spreading in 
habit, but in a few cases, e.g., Amini, they may be rather tall, 
with an oval crown. The foliage is abundant, bright to deep 
green in color, the leaves medium to large in size, with primary 
transverse veins 20 to 24 pairs, fairly conspicuous. The panicle 
is large, very broad toward the base, stiff, sometimes stout, 10 
to 18 inches long, the axis and laterals pale green to dull rose- 
pink in color, glabrate to very finely and sparsely pubescent. 
The flowers are not crowded on the panicle. The staminodes 
are poorly developed, rarely capitate. Most varieties of this 
group are not heavy bearers. Flowers are often produced 
sparingly, or on only one side of the tree, but a much higher 
percentage of flowers develops into fruits than in the Mulgoba 
group. Under average conditions, most of the varieties bear 
small to fair crops. The fruit is longer than broad, usually 
oblique at the base, and lacks a beak. The stigmatic point or 
nak often forms a prominence on the ventral surface above the 
apex. The color varies from yellowish green to bright yellow 
blushed scarlet. The flesh is orange colored, free from fiber, 
and is characterized by rich luscious flavor, in some varieties 
nearly as good as that of Mulgoba. On an average, the qualitj'^ 
of fruit is better than in any other group. The seed contains 
but one embryo. 

Atnini (Fig. 17). — -Form oval, laterally compressed; size small 
to below medium, weight 6 to 8 ounces, length 3 to 3| inches, breadth 
2^2 to 2i inches, base obliquely flattened, cavity none ; apex rounded, 
the nak conspicuous and f^ inch above the end of the fruit ; surface 



THE MANGO 



141 



W0k 




Fig. 17. Amini mango. (X about \) 



smooth, deep yellow in color overspread with dull scarlet particularly 
around the base, dots numerous, small, pale yellow ; skin thick and 
firm ; flesh bright orange- yellow in color, melting, very juicy, strongly 
aromatic, free from fiber, and 
of sweet unusually spicy flavor ; 
quality excellent ; seed oblong- 
oval, very thin, with only a few 
short fibers on the ventral edge. 
Season in Florida June and 
July. 

Introduced into the United 
States in 1901 by the United 
States Department of Agricul- 
ture (S. P. I. No. 7104) from 
Bangalore, India. One of the 
most satisfactory Indian varie- 
ties tested in Florida and the 
West Indies. It is more regu- 
lar in bearing than many others, and the aroma and flavor of the fruit 
are excellent. Not to be confused with Amiri, which has sometimes 
been sold under the name Long Amini. Amin (Sanskrit) means a 
taU, pyramidal mango tree ; amin (Arabic) means constant, faithful. 
Bennett (Fig. 18). — Form ovate-oblique to ovate-cordate, very 
plump ; size below medium to medium, weight 7 to 12 ounces, length 
3 to 3i inches, breadth 2| to 3| inches, base obliquely flattened, cavity 

almost none ; apex broadly 
pointed, the nak level or slightly 
depressed, about | inch above 
end of fruit ; surface smooth, 
yellow-green to yellow-orange, 
dots few, light yeUow; skin 
thick and tough, not easily 
broken ; flesh deep orange, free 
from flber, firm and meaty, 
moderately juicy, of pleasant 
aroma and sweet, rich, piquant 
flavor ; quality excellent ; seed 
oblong-reniform, thick, with 
short stiff flbers over the entire 
surface. Season in south Flor- 
ida late July and August. 
Introduced into the United States in 1902 by the United States 
Department of Agriculture (S. P. I. 8419 and 8727) from Goregon, near 
Bombay, India. Syn. Douglas Bennett's Alphonse. This is one of 
the esteemed Alphonse mangos of western India. Some of the fruits 




Fig. 18. The Bennett mango. (X f) 



142 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



produced in Florida have been characterized by hard sour lumps in the 
flesh, hence the variety has not made such a favorable impression as 
would otherwise have been the case. The tree is vigorous, and bears 
more regularly than Mulgoba. The Alphonse mangos are supposed to 
have been named for Affonso (Alphonse) d'Albuquerque, one of the 
early governors of the Portuguese possessions in India. The name has 
been corrupted to Apoos, Afoos, Hafu. 

Pairi (Fig. 19). — Form ovate-reniform to ovate-oblique, promi- 
nently beaked ; size below medium to medium, weight 7 to 10 ounces, 
length 3 to SJ inches, breadth 2| to 3| inches ; base obliquely flattened, 
cavity none ; apex rounded to broadly pointed, with a conspicuous 
beak slightly above it on the ventral side of the fruit ; surface smooth 
to undulating, yellow-green in color, suffused scarlet around the base, 

the dots few, small, whitish 
yellow ; skin moderately thick ; 
flesh bright yeUow-orange in 
color, firm but juicy, of fine 
texture, free from fiber, of pro- 
nounced and pleasant aroma 
and sweet, rich, spicy flavor ; 
quality excellent ; seed thick, 
with short bristly fibers over 
the entire surface. Season in 
south Florida July and August. 
Introduced into the United 
States in 1902 from Bombay, 
India, by the United States 
Department of Agriculture (S. 
P. I. 8730) ; a variety (S. P. I. 
29510) introduced under the 
same name in 1911 from Poona, India, has proved to be slightly differ- 
ent. Syns. Paheri, Pirie, Pyrie. Ranks second only to Alphonse in 
the markets of Bombay, India. William Burns says, " Personally I 
prefer the slightly acid Pairi to the heavier and more luscious Alphonse." 
Two subvarieties are known in India, Moti Pairi and Kagdi Pairi. 
The tree is a good grower, and resembles Bennett in productiveness, 
although it sometimes fruits more heavily. The word Pairi is probably 
a corruption of the Portuguese proper name Pereira. 

Rajpuri. — Form roundish ovate to ovate-reniform, beaked ; 
size below medium to medium, weight 8 to 12 ounces, length 3j to 
3| inches, breadth 3 to 3i inches ; base flattened, scarcely oblique, 
cavity none ; apex bluntly pointed, with the prominent nak to one 
side ; surface smooth, green-yellow to yellow in color, over-spread with 
scarlet on exposed side and around base ; dots small, numerous, 
whitish ; skin moderately thick ; flesh deep yeUow in color, free from 




The Pairi mango. (X f) 



THE MANGO 143 

fiber, juicy, with pronounced aroma and rich piquant flavor ; quality 
excellent ; seed oblong-elliptic, thick, with short stiff fibers over the 
surface. Season July and August in Florida. 

Introduced into the United States in 1901 from Bangalore, India, 
by the United States Department of Agriculture (S. P. I. 7105). 
Syns. Rajpury, Rajapuri, Rajabury, and Rajapurri. A fruit of fine 
quality, with aroma and flavor distinct from that of other mangos. 
Its fruiting habits have proved fairly good. Rajpur, name of a town 
in India (perhaps Rajapurf). 

Sander sha group. 

The tree is erect, stiff, with the crown less broad than in 
the Mulgoba group and usually not so umbrageous. The 
foliage is fairly abundant, deep green in color, the leaves com- 
paratively small but broad, with primary transverse veins 18 
to 24 pairs, moderately conspicuous. The panicle is small to 
large, broad toward the base, 8 to 18 inches long, stiff, the axis 
and laterals deep magenta-pink to bright maroon, the pubes- 
cence very minute and inconspicuous. The flowers are 
abundant but not closely crowded on the panicle. The stami- 
nodes are weakly developed, rarely capitate or fertile. Varieties 
of this group often flower in unfavorable weather, and they 
remain in bloom during a long period. On the whole, the group 
is characterized by a higher degree of productiveness than any 
other class of Indian mangos yet grown in the United States. 
The fruit is long, usually tapering to both base and apex and 
terminating in a prominent beak at the apex, large in size, deep 
yellow in color, the flesh orange-yellow, and free from fiber. 
The somewhat acid flavor makes the mangos of this group more 
valuable as culinary than as dessert fruits. The seed is long, 
containing normally one embryo, the cotyledons often not filling 
the endocarp completely. 

Sander sha (Fig. 20). — Form oblong, tapering toward stem and 
prominently beaked at the apex ; size large to extremely large, weight 
18 to 32 ounces, length 6? to 8 inches, breadth 3f to 4i inches ; base 
slender, extended ; apex broadly pointed, with the nak forming 
a prominent beak to the ventral side ; surface smooth, yellow to 



144 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



golden yellow in color, sometimes blushed scarlet on exposed side, 
dots numerous, small, yellow-gray ; flesh orange-yellow in color, 
meaty, moderately juicy, free from fiber, and of subacid, slightly aro- 
matic flavor ; dessert quality fair, culinary quality excellent ; seed long, 
slender, slightly curved, with fiber only along the ventral edge. Season 
in south Florida August and September. 

Introduced into the United States in 1901 from Bangalore, India, 
by the United States Department of Agriculture (S. P. I. 7108). 
Syns. Soondershaw, Sandershaw, Sundersha. A variety introduced 
from Saharanpur, India, under the name Sundershah (S. P. I. 10665) is 

probably distinct. The tree he s 
remarkably good fruiting habits. 
Etymology of name unknown. 

Totapari. — Form oval to ob- 
Ijng-reniform, beaked ; size me- 
dium, weight 10 to 12 ounces, 
length 4| to 5 inches, breadth 3 
to Si inches; base rounded, the 
stem inserted squarely ; apex 
broadly pointed, with the nak 
forming a prominent beak to the 
ventral side ; surface smooth, 
greenish yellow in color, over- 
spread with scarlet on exposed 
side ; skin moderately thick and 
tough ; flesh bright yellow in 
color, unusually juicy, free from 
fiber, moderately aromatic, and 
of subacid, moderately rich fla- 
vor; dessert quality fair, culi- 
nary quality good ; seed oblong, rather thin, with small amount of 
fiber on edges. Season in south Florida August and September. 

Introduced into the United States in 1902 from Bombay, India, 
by the United States Department of Agriculture (S. P. I. 8732). 
Syn. Totafari. The tree does not bear as well as Sandersha, nor is 
the fruit quite as good. The name means "parrot's beak." 




Fig. 20. The Sandersha mango. The 
fruit is not so richly flavored as that of 
Mulgoba or Pairi, but is excellent for 
cooking. (X i) 



Cambodiana group. 

In this group the tree is erect, with the crown usually oval, 
never broadly spreading, and densely umbrageous. The foliage 
is abundant, deep green in color, the leaves medium sized to 
rather large, with primary transverse veins more numerous 
than in other groups, commonly 26 to 30 pairs, quite con- 



THE MANGO 



145 



spicuous. The odor of the crushed leaves is distinctive. The 
panicle is very large, loose, slender, 12 to 20 inches in length, 
and laterals pale green to dull magenta-pink, very finely pubes- 
cent. The staminodes are poorly developed, rarely capitate 
or fertile. The varieties of this group usually bloom profusely ; 
those from Indo-China are productive, while the Philippine 
seedlings in Florida sometimes bear excellent crops and in other 
seasons drop all their flowers. Three to five fruits, or even more, 
may develop on one panicle. In form the fruits are always long, 
strongly compressed laterally, and usually sharply pointed at the 
apex, lemon-yellow to deep yellow in color, with bright yellow 
flesh almost free from fiber and of characteristic sprightly sub- 
acid flavor, lacking the rich- 
ness of some of the Indian 
mangos. The seed is oblong, 
normally poly embryonic. ^^KiS$&»l 

Cambodiana (Fig. 21). — 
Form oblong to oblong-ovate, 
compressed laterally ; size below 
medium to medium, weight 8 to 
10 ounces, length 3| to 41 inches, 
breadth 2| to 2| inches ; base 
rounded, the stem inserted 
squarely or slightly to one 
side without depression; apex 
pointed, the nak a small point 
5 inch above the longitudinal 
apex ; surface smooth, yeUow-green to deep yellow in color, dots almost 
wanting ; skin very thin and tender ; flesh deep yellow in color, very 
juicy, free from fiber, and of mild, subacid, slightly aromatic flavor ; 
quality good; seed elliptic-oblong, thick, with short fiber on ventral 
edge. Season in Florida late June to early August. 

Originated at Miami, Florida, from a seed introduced in 1902 from 
Saigon, Cochin China, by the United States Department of Agriculture 
(S. P. I. 8701). A later importation of seeds from the same region 
(S. P. I. 11645) has given rise to another variety propagated by budding 
which differs slightly from the one here described. The tree bears 
more regularly than most of the Indian varieties. Named for Cam- 
bodia, a region of French Indo-China. 




Fig 



The Cambodiana mango. (X J) 



CHAPTER IV 
RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 

While the mango is the leading fruit of the Anacardiacese or 
Cashew family, yet other species are more or less cultivated 
and should be briefly discussed here. The family comprises 
as a whole some 400 species in about 60 genera, widely dis- 
tributed over the earth, mostly in warm countries. Some of the 
species (as poison ivy and sumac) are poisonous; but it is 
probable that it comprises many comestible products of value. 
The pistachio-nut is one of them. 

The Cashew (Fig. 22) - 
{Anacardium occidentale, L.) 

The Brazilians are the only people who fully appreciate the 
cashew. Father J. S. Tavares, whose studies of Brazilian 
f-ruits are probably the most exhaustive as well as the most 
interesting which have been published, says of this tree : " It 
furnishes food and household remedies to the poor, a refreshing 
beverage to the sick, a sweetmeat for tables richly served, 
and resin and good timber for industrial uses." 

The readiness with which the cashew grows and fruits in a 
semi-wild state has kept it from receiving the horticultural 
attention which other and more delicate species have enjoyed. 
In nearly all regions where it is grown, it is more common as a 
naturalized plant than in the fruit garden. It does not object 
to such treatment, but multiplies rapidly, grows vigorously, 
and yields abundantly of its handsome fruit. 

146 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 



147 



To see the cashew at its best, one must visit the markets of 
Bahia or some other city of the Brazihan coast. Here, during 
the short season in which they ripen, immense heaps of cashews 
are piled up on every side. Its brilHant shades of color, varying 
from yellow to scarlet, and its characteristic and penetrating 
aroma combine to make 
this one of the most 
enticing of all tropical 
fruits. 

The cashew is a 
spreading evergreen 
tree growing up to 40 
feet in height. One of 
the early voyagers, 
Father Simam de Vas- 
concellos, speaks of it 
as " the most handsome 
of all the trees of Amer- 
ica," for which extrava- 
gant statement Father 
Tavares takes him to 
task. The cashew can- 
not fairly be called 
handsome ; indeed, it 
is oftentimes awkward 
or ungainly in habit, 
with crooked trunk and 
branches. The leaves, 
which are clustered to- 
ward the ends of the stiff branchlets, are oblong-oval or oblong- 
obovate in form, rounded or sometimes emarginate at the apex, 
and acute to cuneate at the base. They vary between 4 and 8 
inches in length, and 2 and 3 inches in breadth. 

The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 6 to 10 inches 




Fig. 22. Foliage, flowers, and fruit of the 
cashew {Anacardium occidentale) . The kidney- 
shaped seed (properly speaking, the fruit) con- 
tains an edible kernel of delicious flavor, while 
the fleshy portion (fruit-stalk) above it is filled 
with aromatic juice, and may be used in many 
ways. (X about J) 



148 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

long. The cashew, Hke the mango, is polygamous; that is, 
some of the flowers are unisexual (staminate) and others 
bisexual, both types being produced on the same panicle. The 
calyx is five-partite, the corolla h inch broad, with five linear- 
lanceolate, yellow-pink petals. The stamens are usually nine 
in number, all fertile. The ovary is obovoid, with the style 
placed to one side. 

The fruit is peculiar. The part which would be taken for the 
fruit at first glance is in reality the swollen peduncle and disk, 
while the fruit proper is the kidney-shaped cashew-nut attached 
to its lower end. The fleshy portion may be termed the cashew- 
apple, in order to distinguish it from the true fruit, or cashew- 
nut. It differs in size, being sometimes as much as 3i inches in 
length, while it may be less than 2 inches. The surface is 
commonly brilliant yellow or flame-scarlet in color. The skin 
is a thin membrane, easily broken ; the flesh light yellow in color 
and very juicy. The kidney-shaped nut which is attached to its 
lower end contains the single oblong seed. 

The cashew was formerly thought, by some writers at least, 
to be indigenous both in America and Asia, It has been shown, 
however, that it was originally confined to America, whence it 
was carried to Asia and Africa by early Portuguese voyagers, 
Jacques Huber ^ considered it indigenous on the campos (plains) 
and dunes of the lower Amazon region and the north Brazilian 
coast in general. It spread very early to other parts of the 
tropical American seacoast, and probably was introduced into 
the West Indies by the Indians who reached those islands from 
the South American mainland before the arrival of Europeans. 
Gabriel Soares de Souza, one of the earliest chroniclers of 
Brazil, found the tree growing both wild and cultivated on the 
coast of Bahia in the sixteenth century. He mentions a "fra- 
grant and delicious wine" which the Indians prepared from the 
fruit. 

1 Boletim do Museu Goeldi, 1904, 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 149 

At the present time the cashew is common on the mainland 
of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil. It is 
abundant also in the West Indies. In Africa it is found on 
both the east and west coasts, and in Madagascar. In southern 
India it has become thoroughly naturalized in many of the 
coastal forests. It is grown in the Malay Archipelago, and is 
said to be abundant in Tahiti. In Hawaii it is not very 
common. 

Regarding its occurrence in India, Dymock, Warden, and 
Hooper (Pharmacographia Indica) say : 

" It was not known in Goa a.d. 1550 ; but Christopher a 
Costa saw it in Cochin shortly after this. ... In 1653 only 
a few trees existed on the Malabar coast; since then it has 
become completely naturalized on the western coast, but is 
nowhere so abundant as in the Goa territory, where it yields a 
very considerable revenue. It is planted upon the low hilly 
ridges which intersect the country in every direction, and which 
are too dry and stony for other crops. The cultivation gives 
no trouble, the jungle being simply cut down to make room for 
the plants." 

In the United States the culture of this tree is limited to the 
coast of Florida, south of Palm Beach and Punta Gorda, approx- 
imately. There are sturdy fruiting trees both at Palm Beach 
and Miami. In California all experiments up to the present 
time have indicated that the climate is not warm enough for it. 

In Mexico and Central America the cashew is common on 
the seacoast but is rarely found at elevations higher than 3000 
feet. At altitudes of 5000 or 6000 feet the climate appears to 
be too cool for the tree. 

The English name cashew is an adaptation of the Portuguese 
caju. The latter was taken by the earliest settlers in Brazil 
from the Tupi name acajn. In the Spanish-speaking countries 
of tropical America the usual name is maranon, presumably 
from the Brazilian state of Maranhao. The name pajuil is 



150 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

used in Porto Rico, while in Guatemala the similarity of the 
cashew to its relative the mombin {Spondias Mombin) is recog- 
nized in the common name jocote maranon (the mombin being 
called simply jocote). In India the form kaju (gajus in the 
Malayan region) has appeared, in addition to a number of 
names not derived from the American caju. In French the 
cashew-apple is called pomme d' acajou, and the nut noix d' acajou. 
The latter is termed castanha (chestnut) in Brazil. 

In many regions the nut is more extensively used than the 
apple or fleshy portion. In Brazil this is not the case. 

The cashew-apple is soft, juicy, acid, and highly astringent 
before maturity, retaining sufficient astringency when fully ripe 
to lend it zest. Owing to its remarkably penetrating, almost 
pungent aroma, the jam or sweetmeat made from it possesses 
a characteristic and highly pleasing quality. It is also used 
to supply both a wine and a refreshing beverage, similar to 
lemonade, which the Brazilians know as cajuada. The wine, 
which is manufactured commercially in northern Brazil, retains 
the characteristic aroma and flavor of the fresh fruit. The 
preserved fruit in various forms also is an article of commerce. 

In several countries the cashew-nut is produced commercially 
and exported to Europe and North America. According to Con- 
sul Lucien Memminger, shipments to the United States from 
the Madras Presidency in India during the year 1915 totaled 
2288 cwt., valued at S28,063. "About 15,000 cwt. of these 
nuts are now exported in an average season to England, France, 
and America, the principal port of shipment being Mangalore." 

The cashew-nut is kidney-shaped, and about an inch in 
length. The soft, thick, cellular shell or pericarp incloses a 
slightly curved, white kernel of fine texture and delicate flavor. 
To prepare the nuts for eating, they are roasted over a charcoal 
fire. The shell contains cardol and anacardic acid substances 
which severely burn the mouth and lips of any one who attempts 
to bite into a fresh nut. Since these principles are decomposed 





Plate VIII. C/pper, the cherimoya at its best ; lower, the soursop 
and other fruits. 



.#■ 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 151 

by heat, the roasted nut can be eaten without the slightest in- 
convenience or danger. The kernel is said to contain : fats 
47.13 per cent, nitrogenous matter 9.7 per cent, and starch 5.9 
per cent. An analysis made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thompson 
showed the presence of protein to the amount of 14.43 per cent, 
ash 2.58 per cent, fat 4.56 per cent, and fiber 1.27 per cent. 

The cashew is not particular in regard to the soil on which it 
grows, but it is intolerant of frost and can only be cultivated 
successfully in regions where temperatures much below the 
freezing point are rarely experienced. An account of its 
culture in southwestern India is given in the Daily Consular 
and Trade Reports for November 3, 1914 : 

" Cashew-nut trees can be grown successfully on any soil. They 
thrive in sandy places as well as on stone, and are not fastidious in 
point of soil, but are generally grown where no other crop can be 
produced. In this district there are many sand hiUs, especially below 
Ghats, which are utilized for this crop. Along seacoasts which are 
exposed to severe gusts of wind, the plants never attain the form of a 
tree, but keep along the ground, producing small branches. 

" Seeds . . . are usually planted in the month of June, at a distance 
of about 15 feet each way. In many cases this distance proves to be 
insufficient. The plants are watered the first year only. No other 
care is taken of them. The plantation is usually inclosed by walls. 

" The plants begin to bear from the third year and continue tiU 
the age of about fifteen, at which stage the trees exude a gummy sub- 
stance in large quantities and then die." 

In other regions the trees live to a greater age than fifteen 
years. Reports from many parts of the world indicate that they 
may come into bearing the second or third year. P. W. 
Reasoner recommended the cashew for cultivation in northern 
greenhouses, because of its habit of bearing at an early age. 

In Brazil the cashew flowers in August and September and 
ripens its fruit from November to February. In southern 
India the flowering season is December and January, and the 
fruit ripens in March. An Indian writer estimates the yield 
of a mature tree at 115 to 150 pounds of fruit yearly. "To get 



152 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

one maund (28 pounds) of kernels about li candies (115 pounds) 
of seed nuts are required." 

Very few pests have been reported as affecting the cashew. 
Father Tavares ^ mentions a fungus parasite which attacks the 
branchlets, leaves, and flowers at Bahia, Brazil. The red- 
banded thrips {Heliothrips rubrocinctus Giard.) sometimes 
attacks the tree in the West Indies. H. Maxwell-Lefroy men- 
tions two other species of thrips which have been found on the 
cashew in Mysore, India : these are Idolothrips halidaji Newm. 
and Phloeothrips anacardii Newm. (?). 

Seedling cashew trees differ in the character and quantity 
of fruit they yield. In Brazil the trees which produce the 
largest and finest fruits are distinguished with varietal names. 
Some of these trees acquire local reputations. 

Recently P. J. Wester has shown that the cashew can be 
shield-budded. By employing this method, it is easily possible 
to propagate choice varieties originating as chance seedlings. 
The reader is referred to Wester's publication " Plant Propaga- 
tion in the Tropics," ^ one of the most valuable contributions 
which have been made to tropical pomology. 

The method of budding the cashew is essentially the same 
as that described in the chapter on the avocado. Wester says 
in brief: "Use nonpetioled, mature bud wood which is turning 
grayish ; cut the bud li to If inches long ; insert the bud in 
the stock at a point of approximately the same age and appear- 
ance as the cion." 

The Imbu (Fig. 23) 

{Spondias tuberosa, Arruda.) 

Of the several fruits belonging to the genus Spondias which 
are grown in various parts of the tropics, the imbu, although 

1 In Broteria, xiv, January, 1916. 

2 Bull. 32, Philippine Bur. Agr., 1916. 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 



153 



relatively little known, is perhaps the best. It merits culti- 
vation wherever climate and soil are suited to its growth. 

The imbu grows spontaneously upon the catingas or dry 
plains of northeastern Brazil. Rarely is it cultivated, since the 
wild trees furnish more fruit than can be consumed. It has 
been planted, however, in a few localities where the wild trees 
are not found. It was introduced into the United States in 
1914, but so far as is known, has not been planted in other 
countries. In view of its abundance in its native home, it is 
strange that a fruit of such good quality should have escaped 
the attention of horti- 
culturists until very re- 
cently. 

The imbu tree is dis- 
tinguishable from other 
growths on the catinga 
by its low spreading 
crown, which is often 25 
feet in diameter. The 
roots are swollen 
(whence the specific 
name tuber osa), and are 




Fig. 23. 



Fruiting twig of the imbu {Spondias 
tuberosa). (X about |) 



said by M. Pio Correa to be used as food in times of scarcity. 
The leaves are 4 to 6 inches long, with five to nine oblong-ovate 
leaflets, equilateral or nearly so, subserrate or entire, and from 
1 to If inches in length. The small white flowers are borne in 
panicles 4 to 6 inches long. Like those of other species of 
Spondias, the flowers are composed of a calyx having four or 
five segments and a corolla of four or five valvate petals. The 
stamens are eight to ten in number, the styles three to five. 

The fruit is produced on slender stems, mainly toward the ends 
of the branches. Some trees are so productive that the fruit, 
when allowed to fall, forms a carpet of yellow upon the ground. 
In general appearance the imbu may be likened to a Green 



154 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Gage plum. It is oval, about li inches in length, and greenish 
yellow in color. The skin is thicker than that of a plum, and 
quite tough. The flavor of the soft, melting, almost liquid flesh 
is suggestive of a sweet orange. If eaten before it is fully 
ripe, the fruit is slightly acid. The seed is oblong and about f 
inch in length. 

In its native home the imbu is eaten as a fresh fruit, and also 
furnishes a popular jelly. It is used besides to make imbuzada, 
a famous dessert of northern Brazil. This is prepared by 
adding the juice of the fruit to boiled sweet milk. The mixture 
is greenish white in color and when sweetened to taste is relished 
by nearly every one. 

While the tree is susceptible to frost, it cannot be considered 
strictly tropical. In south Florida young plants have with- 
stood temperatures of 28° above zero without serious injury. 
Little is known regarding its adaptability to various soils and 
alien climates. While the wild trees are found on very dry soil 
in a region of little rainfall, it is possible that other conditions 
will prove suitable. A few bearing trees were seen by the writer 
in the city of Bahia, Brazil, where the humidity is great and the 
annual rainfall about 60 inches. In south Florida it has been 
tried at Miami, but has not done well. Its failure there has 
been attributed to the large amount of lime contained in the 
soil, but it is not certainly known that this is the limiting 
factor. The soil on the Brazilian catingas is a gravelly loam, 
sometimes mixed with clay, sometimes sandy. 

Fruit from the wild trees varies in size, color, and quality. 
It should be easy to propagate the best seedlings by cuttings ; 
at least, other species of Spondias are propagated in this way. 
Mature wood is used. At Miami, Florida, the imbu has been 
inarched on the ambarella (see below) . Seeds are easily induced 
to grow, and should be germinated in flats or boxes of light soil. 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 155 

The Ambarella (Plate VI) 

{Spondias cytherea, Sonnerat.) 

This is probably the most widely cultivated species of 
Spondias, although it is not so extensively distributed, in its 
wild state, as the yellow mombin. It is known in many 
tropical countries and can be cultivated successfully as far 
north as southern Florida. While not generally considered 
a fruit of excellent quality, an occasional tree is much superior 
to the average and is worth propagating. 

The ambarella is an erect, stately, semi-deciduous tree, 
usually stiff in appearance. It reaches a maximum height of 
60 feet. The leaves are large, commonly 8 to 12 inches long; 
the leaflets, 11 to 23 in number, are oval to oblong in outline, 
2^ to 3 inches in length, remotely serrate, and acuminate at the 
apex. Like those of the imbu, they are equilateral or nearly so. 
The small whitish flowers are produced in large loose panicles 
8 to 12 inches in length. 

The fruit is oval or slightly obovoid in form, 2 to 3 inches long, 
and orange-yellow in color. The skin is as thick as that of the 
mango, but tougher. The flesh is firm, very juicy, and of pale 
yellow color. Its subacid flavor suggests that of the apple; 
sometimes, however, it is resinous or pungent. The seed is 
large, oval, 1 inch in length, covered with stiff spines or bristles 
to which the surrounding flesh clings tenaciously. 

Although larger than those of other species of Spondias, the 
fruits of the ambarella are not usually so pleasantly flavored 
as are choice imbus or the best red mombins (see below). 
They are produced in long pendent clusters of two to ten. In 
Florida they ripen during the winter : in Tahiti the season is 
said to be May to July, and in Hawaii November to April. 
The composition of the fruit, according to an analysis by Alice 
R. Thompson of Hawaii, is as follows : Total solids 14.53 per 



156 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

cent, ash 0.44 per cent, acids 0.47 per cent, protein 0.50 per 
cent, total sugars 10.54 per cent, fat 0.28 per cent, and fiber 
0.85 per cent. 

Ambarella is the Sinhalese name used in Ceylon, and is 
preferred as being more euphonious and attractive than the 
name Otaheite-apple. The latter term is current in some of 
the British colonies, but is sometimes applied also to a different 
fruit, the ohia. Jew-plum is another name for the ambarella, 
used in Jamaica. The French call the fruit pomme Cythere. 
In Polynesia its name is vi or evi, the former word (spelled wi) 
being used in Hawaii. In Brazil the Portuguese name is 
cajd-manga. Spondias dulcis Forst. is a botanical synonym of 
S. cytherea Sonnerat. 

The tree is considered indigenous in Polynesia. It was 
brought to Jamaica in 1782, and again in 1792 (on this second 
occasion by Captain Bligh, who introduced the breadfruit into 
the West Indies from Tahiti). It has not become popular in 
Cuba, nor is it commonly grown on the mainland of South 
America, with the exception of certain parts of Brazil. In South 
Florida it is successful as far north as Palm Beach. No trees 
are known to have reached fruiting size in California. The 
winters there are probably too cool for it. 

While the tree thrives best on deep rich soils, it has been 
successful in Florida (though not reaching large size) upon 
shallow sandy land. Thomas Firminger says that the seeds do 
not germinate readily, and that plants " are usually obtained by 
grafting upon seedlings of S. mangifera." P. J. Wester has 
found that the species can be shield-budded in the same manner 
as the avocado; he says, "Use nonpetioled, slender, mature, 
but green and smooth budwood ; cut large buds with ample 
wood-shield, 1^ to If inches long ; insert the buds in the stock 
at a point of approximately the same age and appearance as 
the cion." 

Early travelers who visited Polynesia spoke of this fruit in 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 157 

high terms. More recently, however, it has been hkened to a 
"very bad mango," and several writers have adjudged that it 
did not merit cultivation. Much depends on the variety ; while 
the average may be poor, an occasional one is good. Only 
superior kinds propagated by some vegetative means should be 
planted. As yet no attempt has been made to find the best 
varieties and establish them as horticultural forms. 

The Red Mombin (Plate VII) 
(Spondias Mombin, L.) 

No other species of Spondias is so extensively used in tropical 
America as this. In many parts of Mexico and Central America 
it is a fruit of the first importance. It occurs in a wide range 
of seedling races or forms, and is capable of great improvement 
by selection and vegetative propagation. While scarcely so 
good as the imbu, the better varieties are pleasantly flavored 
and attractive in appearance. 

The red mombin is a small tree, often spreading in habit. 
The trunk is thick and the branches are stout and stiff. Its 
native home is tropical America, where it reaches a maximum 
height of about 25 feet. The leaves are 5 to 8 inches long, 
with 16 to 21 oblong-elliptic, oblique, subserrate leaflets 1 
inch to 1^ inches in length. The purplish maroon flowers are 
produced in small unbranched racemes about ^ inch long. 

The fruits, borne singly or in clusters of two or three, are 
quite variable in size and form. Commonly they are oval or 
roundish, but they may be oblong, obovoid, or somewhat pyri- 
form. They range from 1 to 2 inches in length, and from yellow 
to deep red in color. The seed is oblong, ^ to f inch long, and 
rough on the surface. The season of ripening in most parts of 
tropical America is August to November. 

In most Spanish-speaking countries this species is known as 
ciruela (plum), a name which has been corrupted in the Philip- 



158 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

pines to siniguelas. In parts of Mexico and in Guatemala it is 
known by the Aztec name jocote (xocotl) . The common name 
in the French colonies is prunier d'Espagne, prunier rouge, and 
momhin rouge, and in the British colonies it is sometimes called 
Spanish-plum. Spondias purpurea, L. is a botanical synonym 
of S. Momhin, L. 

J. N. Rose^ describes a number of different forms observed in 
Mexico. These races (perhaps species in some instances) 
deserve further study. 

The red mombin is abundant in Mexico and Central America 
from sea-level up to elevations of 5000 or 6000 feet. The value 
of the annual crop in Mexico is estimated at more than $70,000. 
The fruit may be eaten fresh or may be boiled and dried, in which 
latter condition it can be kept for several months. When fresh 
it has a subacid spicy flavor somewhat resembling that of the 
cashew, but less aromatic. Some varieties are sour, and others 
have very little flesh ; the best are pleasantly flavored and have 
about the same amount of flesh and seed as a very large olive. 

In Cuba several seedling races are grown. They are usually 
distinguished as ciruela roja, ciruela amarilla, and so on. In 
Brazil the species appears to be little known. It is successfully 
cultivated in south Florida, as far north as Palm Beach or 
perhaps farther. Varieties from high elevations in tropical 
America should prove slightly hardier than those from the 
seacoast. No trees have been grown to fruiting age in Cali- 
fornia, so far as is known. In favorable situations they might 
succeed there if given protection during the first few winters. 

The tree is semi-deciduous. The leaves fall toward the end 
of the cool season and are soon replaced by new ones. 

The character of the soil does not seem to be important. 
Good trees can be found growing on shallow sandy land, on 
gravel, and on heavy clay loam. A rich, moist, fairly heavy 

1 The Useful Plants of Mexico, contributions from the U. S. Nat. 
Herbarium, V, 4, 1899. 



RELATIVES OF THE MANGO 159 

loam perhaps suits it best. Cuttings take root so readily that 
large limbs, cut and inserted in the ground as fenceposts, will 
often develop into flourishing trees. P. J. Wester recommends 
that cuttings 20 to 30 inches long, of the previous season's growth 
(or even older wood) should be set in the ground to a depth of 
about 12 inches, in the positions which the trees are to occupy 
permanently. The rainy season is the best time to do this. 
The trees should stand about 25 feet apart, unless the soil be 
very poor, in which case 20 feet will be sufficient. No horti- 
cultural varieties have as yet been established. By selecting 
from the existing seedlings in tropical America, many good 
ones could be obtained. 

The Yellow Mombin 
{Spondias lutea, L.) 

This species is generally considered inferior in quality to the 
red mombin. Its cultivation is much less extensive, but it 
occurs abundantly as a wild tree in many tropical regions. The 
name hog-plum, which has been applied to it in the West Indies, 
has perhaps given it a lower reputation than it merits, but the 
term does not, as Cook and Collins point out, cast any reflection 
on the character of the fruit, inasmuch as it refers only to the 
fact that hogs are extremely fond of it, and fatten on the fruit 
which falls to the ground from wild trees in the forest. 

The tree is tall and stately in appearance, and under favorable 
conditions it may reach 60 feet in height. The leaves are 8 to 
12 inches long, composed of 7 to 17 ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate- 
serrulate leaflets, oblique at the base and 2^ to 4 inches in 
length. The yellowish white flowers are borne in loose panicles 
6 to 12 inches long. The fruit is ovoid, commonly 1 inch in 
length, bright yellow, with thin skin, and an oblong seed of 
relatively large size. The flesh is yellow, very soft and juicy, 
and of subacid, rather pungent flavor. Many varieties are 



160 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

scarcely pleasant to the taste, others are sweet and agreeable. 
The fruit is usually eaten fresh. Its composition, according 
to an analysis by Alice R. Thompson of Hawaii, is as follows : 
Total solids 11.47 per cent, ash 0.65 per cent, acids 0.98 percent, 
protein 1.37 per cent, total sugars 9.41 per cent, fat 0.56 per 
cent, and fiber 1.16 per cent. 

The species is considered to be cosmopolitan in the tropics. 
In Spanish-speaking countries it is called jobo, while in Brazil 
it is known as cajd. In the French colonies the names mombin 
jaune and prune Myrohalan are current. S. Mombin, Jacq. 
(not L.) is a botanical synonym of S. lutea, L. 

Occasional trees are seen in cultivation throughout tropical 
America. Cook and Collins report that it is planted extensively 
in Porto Rico. In south Florida it succeeds, but has never 
become common. In California no trees of fruiting age are 
known. The species is rather susceptible to frost ; it is found 
in the tropics only at low elevations, and probably will not 
withstand temperatures much below freezing point, particularly 
when young. 

The method of propagation is the same as that used for the 
red mombin (see above), i.e., by cuttings of mature wood. 



CHAPTER V 
THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 

The annonas are tropical fruits composed of more or less 
coherent fleshy carpels or parts. More than 50 species are 
known, several of which are widely cultivated for their fruits. 
The family comprises 40 to 50 genera. One of them, Asimina, is 
native in temperate North America, and one species (Asimina 
triloba, known also as papaw but very different from the papaya) 
occurs as far north as New York and Michigan. 

The Cherimoya (Plate VIII) 
{Annona Cherimola, Mill.) 

" Deliciousness itself" is the phrase Mark Twain used to 
characterize the cherimoya. Sir Clements Markham quotes 
an even more flattering description : 

"The pineapple, the mangosteen, and the cherimoya," says 
Dr. Seemann, "are considered the finest fruits in the world. I 
have tasted them in those localities in which they are supposed 
to attain their highest perfection, — the pineapple in Guayaquil, 
the mangosteen in the Indian Archipelago, and the cherimoya 
on the slopes of the Andes, — and if I were called upon to act 
the part of a Paris I would without hesitation assign the apple 
to the cherimoya. Its taste, indeed, surpasses that of every 
other fruit, and Haenke was quite right when he called it the 
masterpiece of Nature." 

The cherimoya is essentially a dessert fruit, and as such it 
certainly has few equals. Although its native home is close 
M 161 



162 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

to the equator, it is not strictly tropical as regards its require- 
ments, being, in fact, a subtropical fruit, and attaining perfec- 
tion only where the climate is cool and relatively dry. At home 
it grows on plateaux and in mountain valleys where proximity 
to the equator is offset by elevation, with the result that the 
climate is as cool as that of regions hundreds of miles to the 
north or south. 

Commercial cultivation of the cherimoya has been under- 
taken in a few places. This fruit has not, however, achieved 
the commercial prominence which it merits, and which it seems 
destined some day to receive. 

That it should be unknown in most northern markets, not- 
withstanding that it grows as readily in many parts of the 
tropics and subtropics as the avocado, can only be due to the 
inferiority of the varieties which have been disseminated, to 
tardiness in utilizing vegetative means of propagation, and to 
insufficient attention to the cultural requirements of the tree. 
The best seedling varieties must be brought to light, they must 
be propagated by budding or grafting, and a careful study 
made of pollination, pruning, fertilization of the soil, and other 
cultural details as yet imperfectly understood. There is no 
reason why, when this has been done, cherimoya culture should 
not become an important horticultural industry in many 
regions. Experience in exporting the fruit from Madeira to 
London, and from Mexico to the United States, has shown that 
it can be shipped without difficulty. The demand for it in 
northern markets, once a regular supply is available, is certain 
to be keen. 

The cherimoya is a small, erect or somewhat spreading tree, 
rarely growing to more than 25 feet high ; on poor soils it may 
not reach more than 15 feet. The young growth is grayish and 
softly pubescent. The size of the leaves varies in different 
varieties; in some they are 4 to 6 inches long, in others 10 
inches. In California a variety (originally from Tenerife, 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 163 

Canary Islands) with unusually large leaves has been listed by 
nurserymen under the name Annona macrocarpa. In form the 
leaves are ovate to ovate-lanceolate, sometimes obovate or 
elliptic ; obtuse or obtusely acuminate at the apex, rounded at 
the base. The upper surface is sparsely hairy, the lower vel- 
vety tomentose. The fragrant flowers are about an inch long, 
solitary or sometimes two or three together, on short nodding 
peduncles set in the axils of the leaves. The three exterior 
petals are oblong-linear in form, greenish outside and pale 
yellow or whitish within ; the inner three are minute and scale- 
like, and ovate or triangular in outline. As in other species 
of Annona, the stamens and pistils are numerous, crowded 
together on the fleshy receptacle. 

The fruit is of the kind known technically as a syncarpium. 
It is formed of numerous carpels fused with the fleshy receptacle. 
It may be heart-shaped, conical, oval, or somewhat irregular in 
form. In weight it ranges from a few ounces to five pounds. 
Sixteen-pound cherimoyas have been reported, but it is doubt- 
ful whether they ever existed in reality. The surface of the fruit 
in some varieties is smooth ; in others it is covered with small 
conical protuberances. It is light green in color. The skin 
is very thin and delicate, making it necessary to handle the ripe 
fruit with care to avoid bruising it. The flesh is white, melting 
in texture, and moderately juicy. Numerous brown seeds, the 
size and shape of a bean, are embedded in it. The flavor is 
subacid, delicate, suggestive of the pineapple and the banana. 

The cherimoya is sometimes confused with other species of 
Annona. W. E. Safford,^ who has studied the botany of this 
genus thoroughly, writes : 

" For centuries the cherimoya has been cultivated and several 

distinct varieties have resulted. One of these has smooth fruit, 

devoid of protuberances, which has been confused with the 

inferior fruit of both Annona glabra and A. reticulata. The 

^ In Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 



164 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

last two species, however, are easily distinguished by their leaves 
and flowers ; Annona glabra, commonly known as the alligator 
apple or mangrove annona, having glossy laurel-like leaves 
and globose flowers with six ovate petals, and A. reticulata 
having long narrow glabrate leaves devoid of the velvety lining 
which characterizes those of the cherimoya." 

Annona Cherimola, Mill, is the Annona tripetala of Alton; 
the plant which has been offered in California under the name 
A. suavissima is a horticultural form of A. Cherimola. (The 
orthography Anona Cherimolia was used until Safford showed 
that it is incorrect.) 

The country of origin of the cherimoya remains somewhat in 
doubt. Alphonse DeCandolle, after weighing all the available 
evidence, said, " I consider it most probable that the species is 
indigenous in Ecuador, and perhaps in the neighboring part of 
Peru." The presence of the fruit in Mexico and Central America 
since an early day has led other botanists to assume that it 
might also be indigenous in the latter countries. Recently 
Safford has re-sifted the evidence and has reached the conclusion 
that " De-Candolle is in all probability correct in attributing it 
to the mountains of Ecuador and Peru. The common name 
which it bears, even in Mexico, is of Quichua origin . . . 
and terra-cotta vases modeled from cherimoya fruits have been 
dug up repeatedly from prehistoric graves in Peru." 

The name by which this fruit is known in Spanish-speaking 
countries, cherimoya or chirimoya, is derived (as mentioned 
above, quoting Safford) from the Peruvian name chirimuya, 
signifying cold seeds. The English frequently spell the word 
cherimoyer. The name custard-appje is often used in the 
British colonies ; its application is not confined, however,- to 
this one species, but extends to other annonas. The French 
use the name cherimolier, or more frequently anone. The name 
cherimoya or one of its variants is sometimes applied to other 
species of Annona. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 165 

From its habitat in South America, the cherimoya early spread 
northward into Mexico; much later it passed into the West 
Indies, the southern part of South America, and across the seas 
to the islands near the African coast, to the INIediterranean 
region, and to India, Polynesia, and Africa. 

At present it is naturalized in many parts of Mexico and 
Central America. Throughout this region it occurs most 
abundantly at elevations of 3000 to 6000 feet, occasionally 
ascending (in Guatemala) to 8000 feet. On the seacoast it is 
not successful as a fruit-tree, and is rarely grown. The regions 
which produce the finest cherimoyas in Mexico lie at elevations 
of 5000 to 6000 feet and are characterized by comparatively 
dry cool climates. Excellent cherimoyas are grown at Queretaro 
and in the vicinity of Guadalajara. The fruit is highly esteemed 
in the markets of Mexico City, where it sells at high prices. 
While not grown commercially on a scale comparable with 
the avocado, its culture in certain regions is important, and 
regular shipments are made to the principal markets of the 
country. 

In Jamaica, where the cherimoya was introduced by Hinton 
East in 1785, there are now many trees in the mountainous 
parts of the island. The fruit is highly esteemed in the markets 
of Kingston. In Cuba it is almost unknown. There are a 
few trees in Oriente Province and perhaps elsewhere, but the 
markets of Habana are not familiar with it. It may be men- 
tioned that Annona reticulata is often called cherimoya in 
Cuba, which has led some writers to assume wrongly that the 
true cherimoya is commonly cultivated in the island. 

In Argentina, cherimoya culture is conducted commercially 
in several places, notably the Campo Santo district in the prov- 
ince of Salta. The fruit is shipped to Buenos Aires, where it is 
marketed at very profitable prices. In Brazil it is not com- 
monly grown; in fact it is not known in most parts of the 
Republic. 



166 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

In 1897 M. Grabham wrote a short article in the Journal of 
the Jamaica Agricultural Society on the cultivation of the 
cherimoya in Madeira, He asserted that " many of the estates 
on the warm southern slopes of the island, formerly covered with 
vineyards, have . now been systematically planted with the 
cherimoya" and went on to state that "the fruits vary in weight 
between three and eight pounds, exceptionally large ones may 
reach 16 pounds and over." This article, which has been 
widely quoted, has been responsible for the current belief that 
cherimoya culture in Madeira is more extensive than in any 
other part of the world, and that exceptionally fine varieties 
have been developed. 

Charles H. Gable, an American entomologist and horti- 
culturist who worked in the island during 1913 and 1914, has 
dispelled these illusions. Gable writes : 

" I found the cherimoya industry in Madeira very primitive indeed. 
No effort has been made to commercialize the growing of this fruit. 
Most of the trees are volunteers which have sprung up from dropped 
seeds, or else they have been planted for shade, with perhaps a vague 
notion that they might some day produce fruit. ... I do not know 
any one in Madeira (and I have been over the entire island) who has 
more than a dozen trees in bearing, and only a few have that many. 
Most of the important islanders have at least one tree. ... At 
least 95 per cent of all those on the island are seedlings. Occasionally 
old trees are top-worked by a method of cleft-grafting, but this is not 
highly successful. . . . There is no uniformity in the quality of the 
fruits. Every gradation is found between smooth-surfaced and very 
rough fruits. In those which resemble each other externally there 
may be great differences in quality, acidity, number of seeds, and 
other characteristics. I never got so I felt competent to pick out a 
good fruit in the market. . . . The rough type attains the greatest 
size. The largest specimen I was able to find weighed three and a half 
pounds. ... I hesitate to make an estimate, but I do not believe 
more than a thousand dozen fruits are exported from the island in a 
year. . . . The trees receive no intentional cultivation. Vegetables 
are often planted beneath them. A species of scale insect and the 
mealy bug infest many of them. . . . The trees do not seem to do 
weU above 800 feet elevation. The ripening season is from the last 
of November untU the first of February." 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 167 

In the Canary Islands the cherimoya is not cultivated com- 
mercially, but it is grown on a limited scale. Georges V. Perez 
writes : " Ever since I can remember it has been cultivated 
in the gardens of Orotava as a delicious and perhaps unequalled 
tropical fruit." 

In the Mediterranean region there are several localities in 
which it can be grown successfully. A. Robertson-Prosch- 
owsky, who has experimented with many tropical and subtropical 
plants at Nice, France, finds that the fruits, if caught by cold 
weather before they mature, do not ripen perfectly. If, how- 
ever, the winter is mild and warm they may mature satisfac- 
torily, even if very late. Robertson-Proschowsky believes that 
the cherimoya is well suited for cultivation in sheltered spots 
along the Cote d'Azur (French Riviera), and he recommends 
it as a fruit worthy of serious attention in that region. 

It is cultivated on a limited scale in southern Spain and in 
Sicily. L. Trabut ^ of Algiers writes : " Lovers of the anona 
will find in the markets of Algiers, during November and Decem- 
ber of each year, a few good fruits which are sold at 30 centimes 
to 1 franc each. These fruits come from gardens along the 
western coast, where there are some magnificent trees." He 
further says : " It seems evident that the moment has come 
to extend cherimoya culture. It is not more difiicult than 
orange culture, and at present promises to be more remunera- 
tive." Trabut recommends that the tree be planted in Algeria 
on the coast only, since the climate of the interior is too cold. 

The cherimoya has been planted in several parts of India 
but has not become a common fruit in that country. H. F. 
Macmillan says that it is " now cultivated in many up-country 
gardens in Ceylon." It was introduced into the latter island 
as late as 1880. In parts of Queensland, Australia, it is success- 
fully grown. 

In Hawaii it has become well established. Vaughan Mac-' 
1 Bull. 24, Service Botanique, Algeria. 



168 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Caughey ^ says : " It was introduced into the Hawaiian Islands 
in very early times, and is now naturalized, particularly in cer- 
tain parts of the Kona and Ka-u districts on the island of 
Hawaii." He adds that cherimoyas are rarely seen in the 
markets of Honolulu, but that trees are found in gardens 
throughout the city. 

Nowhere in Florida is the cherimoya a common fruit. Trees 
in limited numbers have been planted in several parts of the 
state, notably in the Miami region. While they grow vigorously 
they do not fruit so freely, nor is the fruit of such good quality, 
as in many other countries. It is probable that the climate 
of south Florida is too tropical for this species. 

As regards California, it is believed that the first cherimoyas 
planted in the state were brought from Mexico by R. B. Ord of 
Santa Barbara in 1871. A few years later Jacob Miller planted 
a small grove on his place at Hollywood, near Los Angeles. In 
the relatively short time since these first plantings were made, 
the cherimoya has become scattered throughout southern 
California, from Santa Barbara to San Diego. The climate 
and soil of the foothill regions seem to be peculiarly suited to it. 
A few commercial plantings have been made, notably at Holly- 
wood, but since they are composed entirely of seedlings they 
have not proved remunerative. Had budded trees of desirable 
varieties been planted, the results would have been different. 
In the largest commercial planting, that of A. Z. Taft at Holly- 
wood, one seedling, more productive than the remainder, pro- 
duced one year about one-fourth the entire crop of the grove. 
Out of eighty trees comprised in the planting, only five pro- 
duced more than a few fruits. By top-working the unproduc- 
tive trees to a productive and otherwise desirable variety, they 
could have been made valuable. 

For sheltered situations throughout the foothill tracts of 
southern California, cherimoya culture holds great promise. 
1 Torreya, May, 1917. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 169 

As soon as budded or grafted trees of good varieties are avail- 
able, many small orchards should be established quickly. 

The cherimoya is commonly eaten fresh : rarely is it used in 
any way except as a dessert fruit. Alice R. Thompson, who has 
analyzed the fresh fruit in Hawaii, finds that it contains : Total 
solids, 33.81 per cent, ash 0.66 per cent, acids 0.06 per cent, 
protein 1.83 per cent, total sugars 18.41 per cent, fat 0.14 per 
cent, and fiber 4.29. It will be noted that the sugar-content 
is high, while that of acids is low. The percentage of protein is 
higher than in many other fruits. 

Cultivation. 

The climatic requirements of the cherimoya have been indi- 
cated in the discussion of the regions in which it is cultivated. 
It is essentially a subtropical fruit, and in the tropics succeeds 
only at elevations sufficiently great to temper the heat. It 
thrives best in regions where the climate is relatively dry. In 
the southern part of Guatemala, where the annual rainfall is 
about 50 inches but where there is a long dry season, it is exten- 
sively grown and the fruit is of excellent quality ; but in the 
northern part of the same country, where the rainfall is nearly 
100 inches, distributed throughout the year, the tree cannot 
be grown successfully. In the highlands of INIexico it is best 
suited where the climate is dry, free from extremes both of heat 
and cold, and where abundant water is available for irrigating. 
The climate of southern California, except in sections subject 
to severe frosts, seems almost ideal for it. In many places frost 
is the limiting factor, for the cherimoya, while the hardiest of 
its genus, does not endure temperatures lower than 26° or 27° 
above zero without serious injury. Young plants will, of course, 
be hurt by mild frosts which mature trees would ignore ; in fact, 
temperatures lower than 29° or 30° are likely to injure them. 

Like other annonas, the cherimoya prefers a rich loamy soil. 
It can be grown, however, on soils of many different types. 



170 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

In California it has done well on heavy clay (almost adobe), 
while in Florida it makes satisfactory growth on shallow sandy 
soils. H. F. Schultz considers the ideal soil to be a fairly rich, 
loose sandy loam, underlaid with gravel at a depth of two to 
three feet. He says: "Some of the best Campo Santo and 
Betania (Argentina) groves are located on such land, which is 
furthermore characterized by a liberal outcropping of scattered 
rocks." Carlos Werckle states that the tree does well in Costa 
Rica on "stony cliffs." He reports that it is more productive 
under these conditions than when grown on richer soil, and him- 
self considers it partial to mountain slopes on which there is 
much limestone rock. 

Experience in California has shown that the cherimoya 
requires cultural treatment similar to that given the citrus 
fruits. Budded trees should be planted in orchard form about 
20 to 24 feet apart; seedlings about 30 feet apart, since they 
grow to larger size. Irrigations, followed by thorough culti- 
vation of the soil, are given at intervals of two weeks to one 
month. While the trees are young, more frequent irrigations 
are necessary. In Argentina, according to H. F. Schultz, it is 
the custom to irrigate the trees at intervals of six to twelve 
days. In Mexico two weeks is considered the proper interval. 

In California, stable manure has been used for young trees 
with excellent results, and occasionally for bearing groves. 
Little attention has been devoted to the subject ; hence it is not 
possible to give specific directions for the use of fertilizers. A 
writer in the Queensland Agricultural Journal recommends that 
each tree be given annually 1 to 3 pounds of superphosphate, 
2 to 6 pounds of meat-works manure with blood, and 1 to 2 
pounds of sulfate of potash. 

The pruning of cherimoyas has received little attention as 
yet in the United States. In Argentina it is considered that 
trees which are kept low and compact are both more precocious 
and longer lived than those which are tall and open in habit. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 171 

In Guatemala the most productive trees are usually those 
which have been cut back heavily. It is possible that fruitful- 
ness can be increased by severe pruning. The matter deserves 
careful investigation. The tree being semi-deciduous, pruning 
should be done after the leaves have dropped and before the 
new foliage makes its appearance. 

Propagation. 

In many regions seed-propagation is the only method which 
has been used with this plant. In the United States, in Madeira, 
in Algeria, and in the Philippines, cherimoyas have been grafted 
and budded successfully; one or the other of these methods 
should be employed to perpetuate choice varieties. 

If kept dry the seeds will retain their viability several years. 
Given warm weather or planted under glass, they will germinate 
in a few weeks. Under glass they may be sown at any time of 
the year ; if in open ground, they should be planted only in the 
warm season. Seeds should be sown in flats of light porous 
soil containing an abundance of humus, and should be covered 
to a depth of not more than f inch. When the young plants 
are three or four inches high, they may be transferred into three- 
inch pots. Good drainage must be provided, and they should 
not be watered too copiously. When eight inches high they 
may be shifted into larger pots, or set out in the open ground. 
In the latter case, they must have careful attention, and, pref- 
erably, shade, until they have become well established. 

For stock-plants on which to bud or graft the cherimoya, 
several species of Annona have been employed. A. reticulata, 
A. glabra, and A. squamosa are all recommended by P. J. 
Wester. In Florida A. squamosa has proved to be a good stock 
when a dwarf tree is desired; A. glabra tends to outgrow the 
cion. In California, seedling cherimoyas as stock-plants 
have given the best results. 

Shield-budding has worked very satisfactorily in the United 



172 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

States. In several other regions horticulturists have found 
grafting more successful. Budding is best done at the begin- 
ning of the growing season, when the sap is flowing freely. 
Stock-plants should be f to i inch in diameter. Well-matured 
budwood from which the leaves have dropped is preferable, 
and it should be gray, not green, in color. The buds should be 
cut li inches in length, and should be inserted exactly as in 
budding avocados or mangos. Waxed tape, raffia, and soft 
cotton string have proved satisfactory for tying. Three or 
four weeks after insertion of bud, the wrapping should be 
loosened and the stock lopped at a point 5 or 6 inches above 
the bud. Wrapping should not be removed entirely until 
the bud has made a growth of several inches. 

For grafting, two-year-old seedlings are to be preferred 
(for budding they may be somewhat younger). The cleft- 
graft is the method usually employed. The cion should be 
well-matured wood from which the leaves have dropped. C. 
H. Gable wrote from Madeira in 1914 : "I have been surprised 
to find how easily the annona is grafted. My first few efforts 
were not very successful, but later I grafted them in all sizes 
from seedlings smaller than a lead pencil to old trees, and more 
than 90% have grown beautifully." Gable found it advisable 
after making the graft to paint the cion and the top of the stock 
(around the cleft) with melted wax, to prevent evaporation. 

Old seedling trees can be top-worked without difficulty. For 
this purpose cleft-grafting is used more commonly than any 
other method. 

The pollination of the cherimoya has been investigated in 
Florida by P. J. Wester, and in Madeira by C. H. Gable. It 
has been thought that the scanty productiveness of many 
trees might be due to insufficient pollination, and the inves- 
tigations tend to confirm this belief. Gable reports that 
normally in Madeira not more than 5 per cent of the flowers 
produced develop into fruits. By hand-pollinating them, 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 173 

however, he was able to obtain thirty-six fruits from forty-five 
flowers. 

After carrying on polHnation experiments in Florida during 
several years, P.J. Wester ^ wrote : " The investigations indi- 
cate that the flowers of the cherimoya, the sugar-apple, the 
custard-apple and the pond-apple are proterogynous and 
entomophilous, though the pollinating agent of the last-named 
species has not been detected." A proterogynous plant, it may 
be remarked, is one in which the pistils are receptive before 
the anthers have developed ripe pollen, cross-pollination being 
therefore necessary, and some outside agency being required 
to effect it. In the case of the annonas the work is done by 
insects ; hence the plants are termed entomophilous. 

The pollination of the closely allied Asimina triloba is 
thus described by Delpino : ^ "The stamens project in the 
center of the pendulous protogynous (proterogynous) flower as 
a hemispherical mass, from the middle of which a few styles 
with their stigmas project. In the first (female) stage of 
anthesis the three inner petals lie so close to the stamens that 
insect visitors (flies) cannot suck the nectar secreted at the 
bases of the former without touching the already mature 
stigmas. In the second (male) stage the stigmas have dried 
up and the inner petals have raised themselves, so that the 
anthers, — now covered with pollen, — are touched by insects 
on their way to the nectar. Cross-pollination of the younger 
flowers is therefore effected by transference from the older ones." 

Wester concluded that one cause of the unproductiveness of 
the cherimoya in Florida was the scarcity of pollinating insects. 
Even under the same conditions of environment, however, 
there are marked differences in productiveness among seedling 
trees. The subject deserves further investigation. Produc- 
tive varieties especially should be studied, to determine whether 

1 BuU. of the Torrey Bot. Club, 37, 1910. 

2 Paul Knuth, Handbook of Flower Pollination. 



174 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

or not they differ in any way from the typical less fecund form 
in manner of pollination. 

The crop. 

Seedling cherimoyas, when grown under favorable cultural 
conditions, begin to bear the third or fourth year after planting. 
Most of them, even at fifteen or twenty years of age, do not 
produce annually more than a dozen good fruits. Occasional 
trees are more satisfactory in this respect, and it is such trees 
which should be propagated by budding. The writer has 
observed one small tree in Guatemala which bore eighty-five 
fruits in a single season, and C. H. Gable found a tree in Madeira 
which bore three hundred. 

In California the main season for cherimoyas is spring, usu- 
ally March and April ; but sometimes a few fruits mature in late 
autumn. In Argentina the season is February to July. Felix 
Foex states that there are ripe cherimoyas in Mexico through- 
out the year, owing to the presence of trees at different eleva- 
tions. From personal observation the writer ventures to 
doubt whether this all-year season is a fact ; in any event, they 
are not abundant during the entire year. In Madeira the fruit 
begins to ripen about the end of November and continues in 
season until eavlj in February. 

When fully mature or "tree-ripe," the fruits are picked and 
laid away to soften. If, however, they are to be shipped to 
distant markets they are packed as soon as removed from the 
tree, and dispatched at once so that they will reach their desti- 
nation before they have become soft. When fully mature and 
ready to pick, they usually have a yellowish tinge. In Mexico 
they are packed for shipment in baskets, using hay or straw as 
a cushion. According to H. F. Schultz, the same method is 
used in Argentina, where twelve to fifteen dozen fruits are 
packed in a basket. Good ventilation should be insured, and 
the fruits should not be wrapped in paper. Cherimoyas ex- 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 175 

ported from Madeira to London net the growers $1.00 to $1.20 
a dozen. In Argentina the average price to growers is $2.20 
a dozen. 

Pests and diseases. 

Although the cherimoya has up to the present suffered 
little from the attacks of insect and other pests in California 
and Florida, it is far from being exempt from them in regions 
where it has been grown extensively for a long period. In 
Hawaii, Pseudococcus filamentosus Cockerell is a serious enemy. 
Several other coccids have also been reported on the cherimoya, 
Aulacaspis miranda Cockerell and Ceropute yuccce Coquillet 
are two which are mentioned from Mexico. Certain of the 
fruit-flies (Trypetidse) are known to attack the fruits of the 
cherimoya. Throughout the warmer parts of America there 
are small chalcid flies, related to the wheat-joint worm and the 
grape-seed chalcid, which infest the seeds of annonaceous fruits. 
Bephrata cuhensis Ashm. has been reported as attacking the 
cherimoya in Cuba. These insects are serious pests. In 
Argentina the attacks of borers are said to reduce the life of 
the average tree by half, making it thirty in place of sixty years. 

Varieties (Fig. 24). 

While there are important differences among seedling cheri- 
moyas, affecting not only the productiveness and foliage of the 
tree but also the size, form, character of surface, color, quality, 
and number of seeds of the fruit, few named varieties have 
as yet been propagated. In the Pomona College Journal of 
Economic Botany (May, 1912) the author has described two, 
viz., Mammillaris and Golden Russet, which have been propa- 
gated in California on a limited scale. Neither of these, how- 
ever, merits extensive cultivation ; hence the descriptions will 
not be included in this work. It seems desirable, however, to 
repeat the botanical classification of seedling cherimoyas pub- 



176 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

lished by W. E. Safford in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horti- 
culture. This comprises the following five forms : 

Finger-printed (botanically known as forma impressa). — Called in 
Costa Rica anonq de dedos pintados. The fruit is conoid or subglobose 
in shape, and has a smooth surface covered with U-shaped areoles 
resembling finger-prints in wax. Many seedlings of this type are of 
good quality, and contain few seeds. 

Smooth (forma Icevis). — Called chirimoya lisa in South America 
and anon in Mexico City. This form is often mistaken for Annona 
glabra and A. reticulata because of the gen6ral appearance of the fruit 
and on account of the name anon, which is also applied to A. reticulata. 
One of the finest types of cherimoya. 




Fig. 24. Seedling cherimoyas, showing some of the common types. (X |) 



Tuber culate (forma tuberculata) . — One of the commonest forms. 
The fruit is heart-shaped and has wart-like tubercles near the apex of 
each areole. The Golden Russet variety belongs to this group. 

Mammillate (forma mamillata) . — Called in South America chiri- 
moya de tetillas. Said to be common in the Nilgiri hills in southern 
India, and to be one of the best forms grown in Madeira. 

Umbonate (forma umbonata) . — Called chirimoya de puas and anona 
picuda in Latin America. The skin is thick, the pulp more acid than 
in other forms, and the seeds more numerous. The fruit is oblong- 
conical, with the base somewhat umbilicate and the surface studded 
with protuberances, each of which corresponds to a component carpel. 

Hybrids between the cherimoya and the sugar-apple {Annona 
squamosa) have been produced in Florida by P. J. Wester and 





Plate IX. Upper, the home of the Fardh date ; lower, in the date 
gardens of Basrah. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 



177 



Edward Simmonds. The aim has been to develop a fruit having 
the delicious flavor of the cherimoya, yet adapted to strictly trop- 
ical conditions. Some of the hybrids have proved to be very 
good fruits, and further work along this line is greatly to be de- 
sired. Wester calls this new fruit atemoya. Hybrids between it 
and the sugar-apple, the bullock's-heart, and the pond-apple (all 
of which see below) have been obtained by him in the Philippines. 



The Sugar-Apple (Fig. 25) 
{Annona squamosa, L.) 

With the exception of the little-known ilama (described later) , 
the sugar-apple is the best of the tropical annonas. In its 
climatic requirements it resembles the bullock's-heart and the 
soursop, rather than the 
subtropical cherimoya. 
In precocity and pro- 
ductiveness it excels all 
of these species. 

The sugar-apple is 
more widely dissemi- 
nated throughout the 
tropics than any other 
species of Annona, and 
in many regions is an 
important fruit. Par- 
ticularly is it esteemed 
in India, where it is 
extensively grown. P. 
Vincenzo Maria wrote of it in 1672 : "The pulp is very white, 
tender, delicate, and so delicious that it unites to agreeable 
sweetness a most delightful fragrance like rose water . . . and 
if presented to one unacquainted with it he would certainly 
take it for a blanc-mange." 




Fig. 25. The sugar-apple (Annona squamosa) , 
a favorite fruit in India and many parts of tropi- 
cal America. The tree succeeds particularly 
well in dry situations. (X |) 



178 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The tree is smaller than that of most other species of the 
genus, its maximum height being 15 to 20 feet. Like the 
cherimoya, it is semi-deciduous. The leaves resemble those 
of A. reticulata except in their smaller size ; they are lanceolate or 
oblong-lanceolate in form, acute or shortly acuminate at the 
apex and acute at the base, 2i to 4 inches long, pale green on 
both surfaces, and glabrate or nearly so, except for the sparsely 
pubescent petiole. The flowers, which are produced singly or 
in clusters of two to four, resemble those of A. reticulata. 
They are greenish yellow in color, about an inch long, the three 
outer petals oblong, thick, rounded at the tips; the inner 
petals minute, ovate. The fruit is round, heart-shaped, ovate 
or conical, 2 to 3 inches in diameter, yellowish green in color. 
The surface is tuberculate and covered with a whitish bloom. 
The pulp is white, custard-like, sweet and slightly acidulous in 
flavor. The carpels, each of which normally contains a brown 
seed the size of a small bean, cohere loosely or not at all, the 
sugar-apple differing in this respect from the cherimoya, in 
which it is difficult to distinguish carpellary divisions in the flesh. 

The sugar-apple is indigenous in tropical America. Its 
abundance in India at a very early period has led several 
botanists to assume that it was common to tropical America 
and tropical Asia. More recently, however, the belief has 
found acceptance that it was originally limited in its distribu- 
tion to the New World. Alphonse DeCandolle, who dis- 
cusses this subject at length, concludes : " It can hardly be 
doubted, in my opinion, that its original home is America, 
and in especial the West India islands." 

The arguments advanced in favor of an Asiatic origin for the 
species were the occurrence of common names for it in Sanskrit ; 
the fact of the tree growing wild in several parts of India ; and 
the presence of carvings and wall-paintings, believed to rep- 
resent the fruit, in the ruins of ancient Muttra and Ajanta. 
Yule and Burnell (Hobson-Jobson) suggest that it may have 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 179 

reached India from both of two directions : from Mexico via 
the Philippines and from Hispaniola (Santo Domingo, in the 
West Indies) via the Cape of Good Hope; in the former in- 
stance bringing with it the common name ata, or ate, which is 
still used in parts of Mexico (e.g., the Huasteca region, near 
Tampico), and in the latter coming under the name annona. 
Safford is not certain that the name ata is of American origin ; he 
suspects it may be derived from the Malayan word atis, meaning 
heart, and that it was carried to Mexico from the Philippines in 
early days. 

In tropical America the sugar-apple is widely distributed. 
In the lowlands of Mexico it is a popular fruit, often cultivated 
and not infrequently found in a naturalized or wild state. It is 
grown from Central America southward to northern South 
America, extending there on the east into Central Brazil, where 
it is one of the important cultivated fruits. At Bahia, Brazil, 
it is said to have been introduced first in 1626 by the Conde de 
Miranda, after whom it is called /rwcto do conde (Count's fruit). 
In Cuba it ranks with the mango as one of the favorite fruits, 
and it is common in other islands of the West Indies. 

In the Orient its cultivation is not limited to India, although 
it appears to be most extensive there. It is grown in the Philip- 
pines, in south China (where it is known as fan-li-chi, or foreign 
litchi), and in Cochin-China. In many islands of Polynesia 
it is abundant. Vaughan MacCaughey says: "It is common 
in many of the older Hawaiian gardens, not only in Honolulu, 
but also on the other islands of the group." In the French 
colonies near the African coast it is well known, and it is also 
reported from the mainland of Africa. Albert H. Benson ^ 
writes : " It is grown throughout a considerable part of coastal 
Queensland. ... It is usually a heavy bearer, and is the 
variety (of annona) most commonly met with in our fruit 
stores." It is not known to have succeeded in the Medi- 
^ Fruits of Queensland, Dept. Agr. Brisbane, 1911. 



180 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

terranean region, although it has been planted in several dis- 
tricts there. 

So far as is known, the sugar-apple tree has never been grown 
to fruiting size in California : the climate appears to be too cool 
for it. In Florida, on the contrary, it is quite successful. P. 
W. Reasoner records that it has fruited as far north as Putnam 
County. On the east coast it occurs as far north as Cape Can- 
averal, and on the west it is found on the south side of the 
Manatee River. The zone in which it can safely be grown, 
however, lies farther south, viz., from Punta Gorda on the west 
coast and Palm Beach on the east to Key West. Throughout 
this part of Florida it succeeds admirably, and deserves greater 
popularity than it enjoys at present. 

In addition to sugar-apple, a name probably of West Indian 
origin, the term sweet-sop is used in the British West Indies. 
In India it is called custard-apple by English-speaking people. 
Its commonest name in Hindustani is sharifa (meaning noble) : 
but it is also called sitaphal (the fruit of Sita). The name ata 
is given it in parts of India. In the French colonies the names 
are pomme-cannelle (cinnamon apple) and atte. In the interior 
of Brazil the Portuguese name is pinha; on the coast atta and 
fructa do conde are also heard. In Mexico the Spanish terms 
are anona, anona blanca, and (erroneously) saramuya and 
chirimoya. In Cuba anon is the form generally used ; this also 
appears in Costa Rica. The Aztec name used in ancient Mexico 
was texaltzapotl, meaning "zapote which grows on stony 
ground." The botanical synonyms of A. squamosa, L., are 
several; Safford lists A. cinerea, Dunal, A. Forskahlii, DC, 
and A. biflora, M09. & Sesse. 

The sugar-apple is preeminently a dessert fruit. Unlike 
the soursop, it is never made into preserves nor is it commonly 
used for sherbets. In composition it is similar to the cherimoya. 
Alice R. Thompson, who has analyzed the fruit in Hawaii, has 
found it to contain : Total solids 24.82 per cent, ash 0.67 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 181 

per cent, acids 0.12 per cent, protein 1.53 per cent, total sugars 
18.15 per cent, fat 0.54 per cent, and fiber 1.22 per cent. In 
spite of its similatity in most chemical constituents, the sugar- 
apple is not equal to the cherimoya in flavor. It has less 
piquancy, less character than the latter. 

The climatic requirements of the tree are somewhat different 
from those of its congeners. It delights in a hot and relatively 
dry climate, such as that of the low-lying interior plains of 
many tropical countries. In Central America it is rarely seen 
at elevations greater than 2500 feet. In hardiness it ranks 
between the soursop and the cherimoya. Mature plants 
are not seriously injured by temperatures of 28° or 29° above 
zero ; J^oung ones may be killed at 30°. 

G. Marshall Woodrow ^ says : "A deep, very stony soil with 
perfect drainage, enriched with decayed town sweepings, are 
the conditions enjoyed by this hardy fruit tree." In other 
regions it has been noted that it does well on rocky land, al- 
though it is probable that it prefers a loose sandy loam. Since 
it is rarely given systematic cultivation, little can be said regard- 
ing cultural methods. F. S. Earle has found in Cuba that it 
needs to be fertilized generously for the best results in fruit 
production, and he recommends a commercial fertilizer con- 
taining 3 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, and 
10 per cent potash. The sugar-apple withstands drought better 
than many other fruit-trees. 

The methods of propagation employed are the same as with 
the cherimoya. Shield-budding has given the most satisfactory 
results in Florida. P. J. Wester has found that A. reticulata 
and A. glabra are congenial stock-plants; seedling sugar- 
apples are also used for the purpose, and are perhaps better 
than those of a different species. 

Compared with other species of Annona, the sugar-apple 
bears heavily. This does not mean, however, that the trees 
^ Gardening in India. 



182 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

habitually load themselves with fruit, for they rarely do so. 
A mature tree, fifteen feet in height, may produce several dozen 
fruits in a season. Usually all of them do not ripen at one time ; 
thus the season is much longer than that of the cherimoya. In 
Florida it is common to pick ripe fruits during as many as six 
months out of the year. When the fruits are fully ripe, they 
burst open on the tree. They should be picked before reaching 
this stage and placed in the house, where they will soften in 
one to three days. After they have softened and are ready 
for eating, they must be handled with care. The fruit of the 
sugar-apple is not so well adapted to shipping long distances 
as that of the cherimoya. 

Seedlings usually come into bearing when three or four years 
old. Some are much more productive than others, and there 
is much variation in the size and quality of fruit produced by 
different trees. When a tree has proved to be unusually good, 
it should be propagated by budding. 

The Soursop (Plate VIII) 

(Annona muricata, L.) 

For the preparation of sherbets and other refreshing drinks, 
the soursop is unrivaled. Those who have visited Habana 
and there sipped the delectable champola de guandbana will 
agree with Cubans that it is one of the finest beverages in the 
world. Soursop sherbet is equal to that prepared from the 
best of the temperate zone fruits, if not superior to all other 
ices. 

The tree is more strictly tropical in its requirements than the 
cherimoya or the sugar-apple. It withstands very little frost, 
and succeeds best in the tropical lowlands. Though widely 
disseminated, it is nowhere grown on an extensive scale. This 
is due, most probably, to the scanty productiveness which 
characterizes the species in general. There is an opportunity 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 183 

here for an excellent piece of work ; by obtaining a productive 
variety and propagating it by budding, or by increasing the 
productiveness of the species through improved cultural 
methods, the soursop could be made profitable and of consider- 
able commercial importance. In the large cities of tropical 
America there is a good demand for the fruits at all times of the 
year, a demand which is not adequately met at present. 

The soursop is a small tree, usually slender in habit and rarely 
more than 20 feet high. The leaves are obovate to elliptic 
in form, commonly 3 to 6 inches long, acute, leathery in texture, 
glossy above and glabrous beneath. The flowers are large, the 
three exterior petals ovate-acute, valvate, and fleshy, the interior 
ones smaller and thinner, rounded, with the edges overlapping. 
The fruit is the largest of the annonas ; specimens 5 pounds in 
weight are not uncommon and much larger ones have been 
reported. It is ovoid, heart-shaped, or oblong-conical in form, 
deep green in color, with numerous short fleshy spines on the 
surface. The skin has a rank, bitter flavor. The flesh is white, 
somewhat cottony in texture, juicy, and highly aromatic. 
Numerous brown seeds, much like those of the cherimoya, are 
embedded in it. The flavor suggests that of the pineapple and 
the mango. 

Alphonse DeCandolle says that the soursop "is wild in the 
West Indies; at least its existence has been proved in the 
islands of Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and several of the 
smaller islands." Safford states that it is of tropical American 
origin. The historian Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo, in his 
"Natural History of the Indies," written in 1526, describes the 
soursop at some length, and he mentions having seen it growing 
abundantly in the West Indies as well as on the mainland of 
South America. At the present day it is perhaps more popular 
in Cuba than- in any other part of the tropics. In Mexico it 
occurs in many places, and the fruit is often seen in the markets. 
It is also grown in the tropical portions of South America. H. F. 



184 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Macmillan says that it thrives in Ceylon up to elevations of 
2000 feet. It is cultivated in India, in Cochin-China, and in 
many parts of Polynesia. Vaughan MacCaughey states that 
it is the commonest species of Annona in the markets of Hono- 
lulu. Paul Hubert notes that it is cultivated in Reunion and 
on the west coast of Africa. 

It will be observed that its distribution is limited to tropical 
regions. In the United States it can only be grown in southern 
Florida, where with slight protection it succeeds at Miami and 
even as far north as Palm Beach. Exceptionally cold winters, 
however, may kill the trees to the ground. In California it is 
not successful. 

The name soursop is of West Indian origin, and is the one 
commonly used in English-speaking countries. In Mexico the 
fruit is known as zapote agrio, and more commonly as guandhana 
(sometimes abbreviated to guanaba), which is the name most 
extensively used in Spanish-speaking countries. Guandhana is 
considered to have come originally from the island of Santo 
Domingo. In the French colonies the common name is 
corossol or cachiman epineux. Yule and Burnell say : " Grainger 
identifies the soursop with the suirsack of the Dutch. But in 
this, at least as regards use in the East Indies, there is some 
mistake. The latter term, in old Dutch writers on the East, 
seems always to apply to the common jackfruit, the 'sourjack,' 
in fact, as distinguished from the superior kinds, especially 
the champada of the Malay Archipelago." In Mexican publi- 
cations the soursop is sometimes confused with the soncoya 
{A. purpurea), though it actually differs widely from the latter 
both in foliage and fruit. 

The soursop is more tolerant of moisture than the sugar- 
apple, and can be grown in moist tropical regions with greater 
success. Temperatures below the freezing point are likely to 
injure it, although mature trees may withstand 29° or 30° 
above zero without serious harm. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 185 

The soil best suited to this species is probably a loose, fairly- 
rich, deep loam. It has done well, however, on shallow sandy 
soils in south Florida. F. S. Earle has found in Cuba that 
liberal applications of fertilizer will increase greatly the amount 
of fruit produced. The formula used is the same as that 
recommended for the sugar-apple. Little attention has yet 
been given to the cultural requirements of the plant. 

The soursop, grown from seed, comes into bearing when three to 
five years old. The season of ripening in Mexico and the West 
Indies is June to September ; in Florida it is about the same. 

Mature trees rarely bear more than a dozen good fruits in a 
season. Oftentimes there are produced numerous small, 
malformed, abortive fruits which are of no value. These are 
due to insufficient pollination, only a few of the carpels develop- 
ing normally, the remainder being unable to do so because they 
are not pollinated. The same phenomenon often occurs in the 
cherimoya, and, less commonly, in the sugar-apple and bullock's- 
heart. 

Seedling trees differ in the amount of fruit they yield. Only 
the most productive should be selected for propagation. It 
may be possible still further to increase their productiveness 
by attention to pollination, and it has been shown that proper 
manuring is a great aid. Since the fruits are commonly of 
large size, it cannot be expected that so small a tree will produce 
many ; still, the average seedling does not bear more than a 
small proportion of the crop it could safely carry to maturity, 
and the object of future investigations should be to obtain 
varieties which will be more productive. 

In various parts of the world the tree is attacked by several 
scale insects, and the fruits by some of the fruit-flies, notably the 
Mediterranean fruit-fly. 

Propagation of the soursop is usually effected in the tropics by 
seed. Choice varieties which originate as chance seedlings, 
however, can only be perpetuated by some vegetative means. 



186 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

P, J. Wester has found that the species can be budded in the 
same manner as the cherimoya. He recommends as stock- 
plants the bullock' s-heart and the pond-apple, both described 
below. Seeds are germinated in the same manner as those of 
the cherimoya. 



The Bullock's-Heart (Fig. 26) 

(Annona reticulata, L.) 

The bullock's-heart, although widely grown, is a fruit of 
little value. Compared with the sugar-apple and the cherimoya 

it lacks flavor. An 
occasional seed- 
ling produces fruit 
of fair quality, but 
there is no reason 
why this species 
should be culti- 
vated when the 
sugar-apple and 
the ilama can be 
produced on the 
same ground. 

The tree is com- 
monly 20 to 25 feet 
high. It is semi- 
deciduous, some- 
times remaining 
devoid of foliage 
for several weeks. 
The leaves are 
oblong- lanceolate 
or lanceolate in form, commonly 4 to 6 inches in length, acute, 
and glabrate. The flowers are borne in small clusters upon 




Fig. 26. The bullock's-heart (Annona reticulata), a 
fruit widely cultivated in the tropics. (X |) 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 187 

the new branchlets. The three outer petals are oblong linear, 
about an inch long ; the inner ones small, scale-like, and ovate 
in form. The fruit is usually heart-shaped (whence its common 
name), but it may be conical or oval. It weighs from a few 
ounces to 2 pounds, and requires a long time to reach maturity. 
The smooth surface, usually reddish-yellow or reddish-brown 
in the ripe fruit, is divided by impressed lines into rhomboidal 
or hexagonal areoles. The flesh, which contains numerous 
brown seeds the size of a small bean, is milk-white in color, 
granular near the thin skin, and sweet, even mawkish in flavor. 

Safford says of this species : " Its fruit is inferior in flavor 
to both the cherimoya and the sugar-apple (A. squamosa), 
from the first of which it may be distinguished by its long, 
narrow, glabrate leaves, and from the second by its solid, com- 
pact fruit as well as its larger leaves. From A. glabra, with 
which it is also confused, it may be distinguished readily by its 
elongate narrow outer petals and its small, dark brown seeds." 

The bullock' s-heart is indigenous in tropical America. It is 
more abundant in the gardens of seacoast and lowland towns 
than its value warrants. From America it has been carried 
to the Asiatic tropics, and it is now cultivated in India, Ceylon, 
the Malay Archipelago, Polynesia, Australia, and Africa. 
Vaughan MacCaughey says that it is not very common in 
Hawaii, but may be found in a few gardens. In the Philip- 
pines and in Guam it has become spontaneous. 

One West Indian common name of this fruit, custard-apple, 
is applied in India to A. squamosa, and sometimes in America 
to A. Cherimola and other species. In India A. reticulata is 
often termed ramphal (fruit of Rama) . In Mexico the Spanish 
names are anona and anona color ada; the Aztec name, which 
appears in the early work of Francisco Hernandez, was quauht- 
zapotl, or tree zapote. In the French colonies the name cachi- 
man or cachiman coeur-de-hoeuf is generally used. In Brazil 
it is called in Portuguese coragao de hoi. 



188 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

So far as is known the tree has never fruited in California, 
the climate of that state being probably too cold for it. It has 
been planted in protected situations there but no specimens have 
reached large size. In southern Florida it grows and fruits 
well. P. W. Reasoner,^ who apparently confused this species 
with the cherimoya, says that it is confined to the same terri- 
tory in Florida as the sugar-apple. Its requirements seem to be 
about the same as those of A. squamosa. It does not appear to 
be so partial, however, to a dry climate. The mature tree will 
withstand several degrees of frost without serious harm ; a 
temperature of 27° or 28° usually does not injure it severely. 
In Ceylon, according to H. F. INIacmillan, it does not grow at 
elevations above 3000 feet. In tropical America it ascends 
to the same altitude, or occasionally to 3500 feet. 

The bullock's-heart prefers a deep rich soil with plenty of 
moisture. It is propagated by budding in the same manner as 
the cherimoya. P. J. Wester has found that it can be budded 
on the soursop, the pond-apple, and the sugar-apple, as well as 
on seedlings of its own species. As a rule, the trees bear more 
freely than those of the soursop and cherimoya, but not more 
so than the sugar-apple. There are as yet no named varieties 
in cultivation. 

The Il,\ma (Fig. 27) 

{Annona diversifolia, Safford) 

The ilama is probably the finest annonaceous fruit which 
can be grown in the tropical lowlands ; yet it has not, until very 
recently, been planted outside the region in which it is in- 
digenous. Now that it has been called to the attention of 
horticulturists, its range should be extended rapidly to all parts 
of the tropics. 

1 Bull. 1, Div. Pomology. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 



189 



The identity of the ilama, first mentioned by Francisco 
Hernandez toward the end of the sixteenth century, remained 
in doubt until W. E. Safford showed, in 1911, that it was a 
species which had not been described botanically. Safford 
named it Annona diversifolia, and brought together much 
information concerning its habits and the character of its fruit. 
These data were published in the Journal of the Washing- 
ton Academy of Sci- 
ences, March 4, 1912. 
More recently the 
writer has been able 
to study the species in 
Mexico and Guate- 
mala, and the United 
States Department of 
Agriculture has distrib- 
uted several thousand 
plants in the warmest 
regions of the United 
States and in tropical 
America. 

The tree grows to an 
ultimate height of 25 
feet. It is slender in 
habit, the trunk not 
more than 10 inches 
thick, often branching from the ground to form three to six main 
stems. Some trees are erect, others spreading in habit. The 
foliage somewhat resembles that of A . squamosa, but the leaves 
are larger and of distinct form, being broadly elliptic to oblance- 
olate, rounded at the apex, and 4 to 5|- inches in length. A 
distinguishing characteristic of this species is the presence of or- 
bicular leaf-like bracts at the bases of the smaller branchlets. 
The flowers are maroon-colored, 1 inch long, with the three outer 




Fig. 27. The ilama (Annona diversifolia), an 
excellent fruit from southern Mexico and Central 
America. (X about 5) 



190 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

petals linear-oblong in form, the inner petals minute. The fruit 
is conical, oval, or round in form, the largest specimens weighing 
about li pounds. The surface is rough, with the carpel- 
lary areas indicated by deeply incised lines; from each of 
the areoles thus formed rises a short thick protuberance. 
Sometimes these protuberances are suppressed, the fruit then 
being almost smooth. The color varies from pale green to 
magenta-pink. An appearance of whiteness is given by the 
presence of a thick bloom over the entire surface. In the pale 
green varieties the flesh is white ; in the pink kinds it is tinged 
with rose-pink. The flavor is sweet, very similar to that of the 
sugar-apple in the green varieties ; in the pink it is more acid, 
resembling that of the cherimoya. The seeds are about as 
numerous as in the latter species but larger in size. The fruits 
are used fresh, like those of the sugar-apple. 

The ilama is indigenous in the mountains and foothills of 
southwestern Mexico, Guatemala, and Salvador, but is not 
known to occur at elevations greater than 2000 feet. It is 
found in the gardens of many Mexican and Central American 
towns, notably in Tapachula, Chiapas, where it is one of the 
principal cultivated fruit-trees. In Colima and Acapulco, 
Mexico, it is called ilama (the ilaviatzapotl or "old women's 
zapote" of Hernandez), while from Tehuantepec to the Guate- 
malan border it is known as papauce. In Guatemala and 
Salvador it is named anona blanca. 

The climatic requirements of the ilama are similar to those 
of the sugar-apple and the custard-apple. The species is found 
only at relatively low elevations, indicating that it prefers a 
hot climate. The amount of cold it will withstand has not yet 
been determined. The regions where it occurs most abundantly 
are dry during several consecutive months and subject to 
abundant rainfall the remainder of the year. In Guatemala it 
sometimes appears in places where there is little rainfall. The 
same is true as regards Tehuantepec, but in this region the trees 




Plate X. Upper, a date palm in full production ; lower, the purple 

granadilla. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITiS 191 

are irrigated. The best soil seems to be a deep, rich, rather loose 
loam. 

Although propagated in Mexico and Central America by 
seed only, the ilama can probably be budded in the same 
manner as other annonas. By using this method of propagation, 
it will be possible to perpetuate the best varieties which originate 
as seedlings. 

The trees come into bearing when three or four years old, 
and sometimes produce good crops. Productive trees often 
bear 100 fruits in a single season. There is, however, the same 
variation in this regard as with other annonas, though less as 
to the form and size of the fruit. The ripening season is short ; 
July and August are the principal months. When the fruits 
are fully mature they crack open. They are commonly left on 
the tree until they reach this condition but it would be better 
to pick them a few days earlier. So handled, they require to 
be kept one to three days after being taken from the tree before 
they soften and are ready for eating. 

The ilama may be termed the cherimoya of the lowlands. 
The cherimoya does not succeed in the tropics unless grown 
at elevations of 4000 to 6000 feet, where the climate is cool. 
The ilama, on the other hand, belongs to the lowlands, but is 
strikingly similar in character to a good cherimoya. It is a 
valuable recruit and one which cannot be too strongly recom- 
mended for cultivation throughout the tropics. 

MiNOK Annonaceous Fruits 

Pond-apple (Annona glabra, L.). — This species is of no 
value as a fruit, but has been used as a stock for other annonas. 
It grows wild in south Florida around the shores of Lake Oke- 
chobee and along the Indian and Caloosahatchee rivers ; occur- 
ring also in the West Indies, on the mainland of tropical America, 
on the west coast of Africa, and in the Galapagos Islands. In 



192 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Florida it is often called custard-apple; in the West Indies 
alligator-apple and cork-wood. While tropical in nature, it 
withstands a few degrees of frost. It is swamp-loving, as the 
name here used indicates, and a vigorous grower. The tree is 
usually small, but sometimes reaches a height of 40 feet. 
The leaves are sniooth, ovate to oblong or elliptic in form, acute 
to bluntish, glossy green above and paler beneath. The flowers 
are large, with the outer petals cream-colored, the inner smaller 
and narrower, whitish outside and blood-red within. The fruit 
is ovoid or heart-shaped, 2 to 4 inches long, smooth, yellowish 
when ripe, with soft yellowish flesh. Mexican writers have 
asserted that the tree is cultivated and the fruit sold in the 
markets. These statements are due to the confusion of A. 
glabra with other species of Annona, most probably the smooth- 
fruited forms of A. Cherimola and A. reticulata. Annona paliis- 
tris, L. and A. laurifolia, Dunal are synonyms of A. glabra, 1j. 

Wild cherimoya (Annona longifiora, Wats.). — This species 
comes from the state of Jalisco, Mexico. Horticulturally it is 
not yet well known, but it is said to have been introduced into 
California. Safford describes it as a shrub or small tree, with 
leaves resembling those of the true cherimoya but distinguished 
when mature by being glabrate or glabrescent between the 
lateral nerves. The flowers are often 2 inches long. The fruit 
is conical or ovate in form, the surface smooth to rough as in 
the cherimoya, which in flavor it resembles. 

Mountain soursop (Annona montana, Macf.). — This species 
is native to the West Indies, where it is also known as guandbana 
cimarrona (Spanish, wild guanabana) and corossolier bdtard 
(French) . It is a small forest tree with leaves resembling those 
of the soursop ; the flowers also resemble those of that species. 
P. J. Wester,^ who tested the fruit in the Botanic Garden at 

^ Philippine Agrl. Review, 2, 1916. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 193 

Buitenzorg, Java, was " surprised to find it of remarkably good 
quality considering that it is entirely unimproved and that it 
has never been recorded as edible. The fruit is about the size 
of a small custard-apple, with sparse, short prickles ; greenish, 
and with yellowish, rather cottony but juicy and subacid, 
refreshing pulp, somewhat recalling the flavor of the soursop 
though inferior to that fruit." The tree is larger and more 
robust than A. muricata. 

Soncoya (Annona purpurea, M09. & Sesse). — This tree is 
little known outside of southern Mexico and Central America, 
where it is native. In Mexico it has been confused with the 
soursop, although neither foliage nor fruit resembles that of A. 
muricata. It is confined to the lowlands ; a moist, hot climate 
suits it best. In Mexico it is sometimes called cabeza de negro 
(negro-head) and ilama. The leaves are large, oblong-elliptic 
to oblong-obovate in form, acuminate at the apex. The young 
branchlets are reddish pubescent. The flowers resemble those 
of the soursop. The fruit is round, sometimes as much as 6 
inches in diameter, brownish gray in color and covered with 
pyramidal protuberances which terminate in short hooks curved 
toward the stem. The carpels, which separate readily, each 
contain an obovate brown seed about an inch long. The flesh 
is bright orange in color, soft, of pleasant flavor suggesting that 
of the northern papaw (Asimina triloba). The fruit is not 
highly esteemed, but is common in the markets of the regions 
where it is native. The tree is cultivated in Mexican and Cen- 
tral American dooryards. Because of its large size, its thick 
skin, the attractive color of its flesh, and its aromatic flavor, 
the soncoya is of interest in connection with the possibilities of 
annona breeding. 

Posh-te (Annona scleroderma, SafFord) . — This species, 
which grows wild in southern Mexico and Guatemala, is 



104 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

I scarcely known in cultivation. It is remarkable for its thick, 

' relatively hard shell, which makes it of possible value with 

; regard to the production of annonas suitable for shipping to 

' distant markets. This is a vigorous tree with large, thick, 

glabrous, oblong leaves and small cinnamon-brown flowers. 

\ The fruit is roundish oblate in form, about 3 inches in diameter, 

/with dull green surface divided into areoles by small ridges, the 

shell being nearly ^ inch thick. The seeds, which are embedded 

in the white melting pulp, are about the same size as those of the 

cherimoya. O. F. Cook^ says: "The texture of the pulp is 

perfect, the flavor aromatic and delicious with no unpleasant 

aftertaste. It is much richer than the soursop, with a suggestion 

of the flavor of the matasano {Casimiroa edulis). . . . The 

most fragrant pulp is close to the rind. The seeds separate from 

the surrounding pulp more readily than in most annona fruits." 

The posh-te appears to be adapted to moist tropical regions most 

probably at elevations of less than 4000 feet. 

Annona testudinea, Safford, the anona del monte of Honduras 
and Guatemala, is closely related to A. scleroderma. The fruit 
has soft, juicy pulp similar to that of the cherimoya but not 
quite so highly flavored. When fully ripe the surface takes on a 
brownish color. The external appearance of the fruit resembles 
that of the posh-te, although the ridges are not so pronounced. 
Both of these species merit horticultural attention. 

Biribd {Rollinia deliciosa, Safford). — Jacques Huber ^ de- 
scribes this as a medium-sized tree common in the orchards of 
Para, Brazil. Its growth is rapid and it prospers equally well 
in sun and shade. "Of all the annonaceous fruits cultivated 
in Para this seems best adapted to our (i.e., the north Brazilian) 
climate, springing up almost spontaneously wherever seeds 
fall." The biriba has been referred incorrectly to R. orthopetala, 

1 Journal Wash. Acad. Sci., Feb. 19, 1913. 

2 Boletim Museu Goeldi, 1904. 



THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 195 

A. DC, from which it can be distinguished by the decurved 
wings of its flowers. The leaves are obovate-oblong or elHptic 
in form, acuminate, 8 to 11 inches long, and nearly glabrous. 
The fruit is roundish oblate in shape, 3 to 5 inches in diameter, 
cream-yellow in color, with the areoles distinctly outlined. 
The flesh is white or cream-colored, juicy, sweet, and of pleasant 
flavor. In Para it has been characterized as the finest annona- 
ceous fruit of tropical America, but Florida-grown fruits do 
not entitle the species to this distinction : neither do specimens 
purchased in the markets of Rio de Janeiro, where they are sold 
under the name fruda da condessa (Countess' fruit). The tree 
is adapted only to tropical lowlands and to regions in the sub- 
tropics which are practically free from frost. At Miami, 
Florida, the mature tree has been killed by a temperature of 
26.5° above zero. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE DATE 
Plates IX-X 

"Honor your maternal aunt, the palm," said the prophet 
Muhammad to the Muslims ; " for it was created from the clay 
left over after the creation of Adam (on whom be peace and the 
blessings of God!)." And again, "There is among the trees 
one which is preeminently blessed, as is the Muslim among men ; 
it is the palm." 

It is in this reverential aspect that the Semitic world has 
always regarded the date palm ; and with sound reason, for 
its economic importance to the desert dweller as the source 
of both food and shelter is even greater than that of the coconut 
palm to the Polynesian. 

Only in recent years, however, have oriental methods of 
date-culture been scientifically examined and tested by horti- 
culturists. By far the greater part of this work must be 
credited to investigators in the United States. The first 
modern importation to this country was of palms rooted in 
tubs, shipped from Egypt to California in 1890. Better methods 
of shipping offshoots were gradually worked out, and intro- 
ductions from all parts of the world have been made in ever- 
increasing numbers in the last quarter of a century. 

Meanwhile, continued study has been given to methods of 
culture, with the result that the problems of the rooting of 
offshoots and the ripening of the fruit, which were at first 
serious sources of loss, have been brilliantly solved, and many 
others adequately dealt with. This work has been done by 

196 



THE DATE . 197 

the United States Department of Agriculture, the experiment 
stations of California and Arizona, and many private growers ; 
and any history of the progress of scientific date-culture will 
certainly record the names of such pioneers as Bruce Drum- 
mond, David Fairchild, R. H. Forbes, George E. Freeman, 
Bernard Johnston, Fred N. Johnson, Thomas H. Kearney, 
Silas C. Mason, James H, Northrop, F. O. Popenoe, Paul 
Popenoe, Walter T. Swingle, and A. E. Vinson, 

As a result of the work not only of the Americans but of 
French horticulturists in North Africa and English in Egypt 
and India, the culture of the date palm is to-day perhaps better 
understood than that of any other fruit of which this volume 
treats. There is room, however, for immense improvement in 
method in practically all of the older date-growing regions, and 
the introduction of more scientific culture will add greatly to 
the national wealth in many parts of the Orient. 

Such an important date-growing country as Egypt does not 
now produce enough dates for its own consumption; for al- 
though it is a moderate exporter it is still more of an importer 
of low-grade dates from the Persian Gulf. The markets of 
North America and Europe have scarcely been touched. 
Before the Great War the annual importation into New York 
was thirty to forty million pounds, • — only five or six ounces a 
head of the country's population. This is a ridiculously low 
rate of consumption for a fruit possessing the food-value of the 
date, and which can be produced so cheaply. There would 
seem to be no reason why it should not become an integral part 
of the diet of American families, being eaten not as a dessert 
or luxury only, but as a source of nourishment. So regarded 
the market is almost unlimited, and considering how few are 
the areas available for growing first-class dates, over-production 
seems hardly possible. 

The date palm characteristically consists of a single stem with 
a cluster of offshoots at the base and a stiff crown of pinnate 



198 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

leaves at the top. It reaches a maximum height of about 100 
feet. If the offshoots are allowed to grow, the palm eventually 
becomes a large clump with a single base. 

The plant is dioecious in character, i.e., staminate and pis- 
tillate, or male and female, flowers are produced by separate 
individuals. The inflorescence is of the same general character 
in both sexes, — a long stout spathe which bursts and discloses 
many thickly crowded branchlets. Upon these are the small, 
waxy-white, pollen-bearing male flowers, or the greenish female 
blossoms in clusters of three. After pollination, two out of each 
three of the latter usually drop, leaving only one to proceed to 
maturity. Chance development of a blossom that has not been 
pollinated occasionally gives rise to unfounded rumors of the 
discovery of seedless dates; genuine seedless varieties have, 
however, been credibly reported. 

The fruit varies in shape from round to long and slender, 
and in length from 1 to 3 inches. While immature it is hard 
and green ; as it ripens it turns yellow, or, in some varieties, red. 
The flesh of the ripe fruit is soft and sirupy in some varieties, 
dry and hard in others. In many kinds, including most of 
those that ripen early, the sugar-content never attains sufficient 
concentration to prevent fermentation; the fruit of such 
varieties must, therefore, be eaten while fresh. 

In cultivation about 90 per cent of the male palms are usually 
destroyed, since they can bear no fruit. 

The presence of offshoots around the base is one of the simplest 
ways to distinguish the date palm, botanically known as 
Phoenix dactylifera, L., from the wild palm of India {Phoenix 
sylvestris, Roxb.) and the Canary Island palm (P. canariensis, 
Hort.) ; from the latter, which is often grown in the United 
States for ornamental purposes, it may also be distinguished 
by its more slender trunk, and by its leaves being glaucous 
instead of bright green. 

Phoenix dactylifera is commonly supposed, following the 



THE DATE 199 

study of O. Beccari/ to be a native of western India or the 
Persian Gulf region. Evidently, long before the dawn of 
history, it was at home in Arabia, where the Semites seem to 
have accorded it religious honors because of its important 
place in their food supply, its dioecious character, and the in- 
toxicating drink which was manufactured from its sap, and 
which in the cuneiform inscriptions is called "the drink of life." 

Traditions indicate that when the Semites invaded Babylonia 
they found in that country their old friend the date palm, 
particularly at Eridu, the Ur of the Chaldees (Mughayr of 
modern maps) whence Abram set out on his migration to 
Palestine. It is even suggested that the Semitic immigrants 
settled at Eridu, which was then a seaport, on account of the 
presence of the date palms, one of which was for many centuries 
a famous oracle-tree. Several competent orientalists see in the 
date palm of Eridu the origin of the Biblical legend of the 
Garden of Eden. 

In very early times the palm had become naturalized in 
northern India, northern Africa, and southern Spain. From 
Spain it was brought to America a few centuries ago. 

In the last quarter of a century, United States governmental 
and private investigators have visited most of the date-growing 
regions of the Old World in search of varieties for introduction 
into this country, where, in California and Arizona, may now be 
found assembled all the finest ones that cultivation, ancient 
and modern, has yet produced. 

Orthodox Muslims consider that the dates of al-Madinah, in 
Arabia, are the best in the world, partly for the reason that 
this was the home of the prophet Muhammad, who was himself 
a connoisseur of the fruit. Unbiased judgment, however, com- 
monly yields the palm to the district of Hasa, in eastern Arabia, 
where the delicious variety Khalaseh grows, watered by hot 
springs. The district of greatest commercial importance is 

^ Malesia, iii. 



200 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

that centering at Basrah, on the conjoined Tigris and Euphrates 
rivers, a region which contains not less than 8,000,000 palms 
and supplies most of the American market. 

The region around Baghdad, while less important commer- 
cially, contains a larger number of good varieties than any other 
locality known. Date cultivation by Arabs is most scientifi- 
cally carried on in the Samail Valley of Oman (eastern Arabia), 
where alone the Fardh dates of commerce are produced. 

Serious attempts to put the date industry of northwestern 
India on a sound basis are being made, and with good prospects 
of success. Western Persia and Baluchistan produce some poor 
dates and incidentally a few good ones. 

In Egypt there are nearly 10,000,000 palms, of which seven- 
tenths are widely scattered over Upper Egypt. Most of them 
are seedlings and practically all are of the "dry" varieties. On 
the whole, the Egyptian sorts are inferior. 

The Saharan oases of Tripoli, Tunisia, and Algeria contain 
many varieties, of which one (Deglet Nur) is as good as any in 
the world, and is largely exported not only to Europe but to the 
United States, where it is marketed under the name of " Dattes 
Muscades du Sahara." INIorocco grows good dates in the Tafila- 
let oases only, whence the huge fruits of one variety (Majhul) 
are shipped to Spain, England, and other countries. The date 
palms of southern Spain are seedlings and bear inferior fruit. 
Elsewhere about the Mediterranean the palm is grown mainly 
as an ornamental plant. 

Intelligent culture of the date palm is now being attempted 
in some of the dry parts of Brazil, where it promises to attain 
commercial importance. It is doubtful whether the date will 
succeed commercially in any moist tropical region, although in 
isolated instances successful ripening of fruit has been reported 
in southern India, Dominica (British West Indies), Zanzibar, 
and southern Florida. 

A large area in northern Mexico, not yet developed, is un- 



THE DATE 201 

doubtedly adapted to this culture ; but experimental attempts 
with it on the Rio Grande in Texas have been abandoned. 
Arizona and California offer the best fields for date-srrowino- 
in the United States, and in the Coachella Valley of California 
(a part of the Colorado River basin) conditions are particularly 
favorable. Residents of this valley are not exceeding the truth 
in asserting it to be the center of scientific date-growing at the 
present time. 

Dates consist mainly of sugar, cellulose, and water. An 
average sample of fruits on the American market will show in 
percentages : ^ carbohydrates 70.6 per cent, protein 1 .9 per cent, 
fat 2.5 per cent, water 13.8 per cent, ash (mineral salts) 1.2 per 
cent, and refuse (fiber) 10.0 per cent. Cane-sugar is found in 
dates ; in a few varieties this is partly or wholly inverted by the 
time the fruit is fully ripe. 

- A diet of dates is obviously rich in carbohydrates but lacking 
in fats and proteins. It is, therefore, by no accident that the 
Arabs have come to eat them habitually with some form of 
milk. This combination makes an almost ideal diet, and some 
tribes of Arabs subsist on nothing but dates and milk for months 
at a time. 

By Arabs, as well as by Europeans, the date is commonly 
eaten uncooked. Unsalted butter, clotted cream, or sour milk 
is thought to "bring out the flavor" and render the sugar less 
cloying. The commonest way of cooking dates is by frying 
them, chopped, in butter. 

For native consumption around the Persian Gulf and in 
India, immature dates are boiled and then fried in oil. Jellies 
and jams are made from dates, and the fruit is also preserved 
whole. Again, they may be pounded into a paste with locusts 
(grasshoppers) and various other foodstuffs. The soft kinds 
are tightly packed into skins or tins, when they are easily 
transported and will keep indefinitely. 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 28. 



202 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Various beverages are made by pouring milk or water over 
macerated dates and letting slight fermentation take place. 
The sap of the plant provides a mild drink resembling coconut 
milk, which when fermented becomes intoxicating. From cull 
dates a strongly alcoholic liquor is distilled, which, flavored 
with licorice or other aromatics, becomes the famous (or rather 
perhaps, infamous) arrak, of which many subsequent travelers 
have confirmed the verdict of the sixteenth-century voyager 
Pedro Teixeira, himself probably no strict water-drinker, who 
said of it, " This is the strongest and most dreadful drink that 
was ever invented, for all of which it finds some notable 
drinkers." 

Cultivation 

While the date palm grows luxuriantly in a wide range of 
warm climates, it is, for commercial cultivation, adapted only 
to regions marked by high temperature combined with low 
humidity. Properly speaking, it belongs to the arid subtropical 
zone. A heavy freeze will kill back the leaves, but the plant 
may nevertheless be as healthy as ever in a year or two. Thus, 
date palms have withstood a temperature of only 5° above 
zero and have borne satisfactory crops in subsequent years. 
Ellsworth Huntington speaks of seeing the date palm in Persia 
where twenty inches of snow lay on the ground ; many genera- 
tions of natural selection in such an environment would doubt- 
less produce a hardy race, but such a region would scarcely be 
thought adapted to commercial date-growing. 

At the other climatic extreme, the date palm apparently finds 
no limit, being at its best where the summer temperature 
stays about 100° for days and nights together. The combina- 
tion of warm days with cool nights is unsatisfactory; unless 
there is a prolonged season during which high temperatures 
prevail night and day, the best varieties of dates will not ripen 
successfully. 



THE DATE 203 

Humidity is an important factor with many varieties. Dates 
coming from the Sahara usually demand a dry climate; yet 
the Coachella Valley in California has sometimes proved too 
dry, and the fruit has shriveled on the tree unless irrigation 
was given while it was ripening. Persian Gulf and Egyptian 
varieties will endure more humidity, since they come from the 
seacoast or near it. Dew at night or rain coming late in the 
season when the dates are softening is almost ruinous to the 
crop, for which reason dates cannot be produced satisfactorily 
in some parts of Arizona. In regions of India where the summer 
rains begin in July, it has been possible to bring dates to maturity 
before the rains arrive. 

In general, the best varieties require : (1) a long summer, 
hot at night as well as in the daytime ; (2) a mild winter, with 
no more than an occasional frost ; (3) absence of rain in spring 
when the fruit is setting; and (4) absence of rain or dew in 
the fall when the fruit is ripening. In regions lacking any of 
these characteristics, date-growing will be profitable commer- 
cially only if special care is taken to secure suitable varieties 
and to develop, by experiment, proper methods of handling 
them. 

Date palms grow well in the stiff clays of the Tigris-Euphrates 
delta, in the adobe soils of Egypt, in the sand of Algeria, and in 
the sandy loam of Oman and of California. No one type of 
soil can be asserted to be necessary. Thorough drainage and 
aeration of the soil are desirable, but even in these regards the 
palm will stand considerable abuse, and is found to grow fairly 
well in places where the ground-water level is comparatively 
near the surface. Naturally, however, the palm responds to 
good treatment as do other plants. On the whole, it is probably 
best suited on a well-drained sandy loam. 

The palm's tolerance of alkali has been noted from very early 
times, and has led Arab writers to believe that it throve best in 
alkaline soil. This is unlikely. Dates can indeed be grown 



204 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

successfully in ground the surface of which is white with alkaline 
efflorescence, provided the lower soil reached by the roots is 
less salty ; but it is probable that the limit of tolerance is some- 
where about 3 per cent of alkalinity, and the grower who looks 
for the best results should not plant on soil whose total alkaline- 
content exceeds one-half of 1 per cent. Naturally, old date 
palms will stand more alkali than young ones. It should be 
noted that the so-called black alkali, consisting of carbonates 
of sodium and potassium, is more harmful than the more or less 
neutral chlorids, sulfates, and nitrates of sodium, potassium, 
and magnesium which go by the name of white alkali. 

If the irrigating water is free from alkalinity, it will, of 
course, help to counteract any alkali present in the soil ; whereas 
the grower who needs to irrigate with brackish water must 
plant his palms in fairly alkali-free soil. Desert landowners 
sometimes calculate that soil which is too salty for anything else 
is good enough for a date plantation. This is short-sighted 
reasoning. Date-growing is, when rightly conducted, so 
profitable that it is worth giving the best conditions available, 
and the wise grower will plant his palms in his best soil. The 
ground should be tested to a depth of six or eight feet to deter- 
mine its alkali-content, particularly if there is salt evident on 
the surface. Unless at least one stratum of alkali-free soil is 
found not far from the surface, the ground should not be used 
for date palms. 

It is the custom in the United States to plant date palms 50 
to the acre. The grower with plenty of land may find that 40 to 
the acre (33 feet apart each way) is more convenient. Arabs 
plant them much closer but do not cultivate their plantations 
frequently. The question of spacing is affected both by the 
nature of the soil and by the variety planted; according to 
Bruce Drummond, such kinds as Saidi and Thuri give the best 
results if spaced 35 or 38 feet apart. 

Drummond gives the following advice about planting : 



THE DATE 205 

" The rooted offshoot when ready for transplanting should be pruned 
from three to five days before removing from the frame. The new 
growth should be cut back to one-half the original height, leaving 
from three to five leaf stubs to support the expanded crown of leaves. 
The holes in the field should be 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep, 
with from 12 to 16 in. of stable manure placed in the bottom of 
each, with 6 in. of soil on top, then irrigate thoroughly. The rooted 
palm when removed from the nursery should carry a ball of earth 
large enough to protect the small fibrous roots from exposure to the 
sun or dry winds. The average depth for planting should be 16 in., 
but this may be varied somewhat with the size of the shoot. In 
any case, the depth should be as great as can be without danger of 
covering the bud. 

"It is not advisable to transplant rooted offshoots later than June. 
April and May are considered the best months of the entire year for 
the transplanting of either young or old date palms. 

"In southern California, where the dry winds occur from March to 
June, the transplanted palms should be irrigated thoroughly every 
week ; in sandy soil two irrigations a week should be given until new 
strong growth is established." 

Arabs usually follow the basin method of irrigation, and it has 
been satisfactory in many other parts of the world. The most 
skillful American growers who irrigate in basins make them 15 
feet square and a foot deep, filling them with a loose mulch of 
straw or stable manure. 

Most American growers, however, prefer to irrigate in furrows, 
and use no mulch. The function of the mulch in reducing 
evaporation is covered by giving a thorough cultivation with a 
surface cultivator or spring-toothed harrow as soon as the ground 
has dried out enough to be workable. This involves cultivation 
of the ground every week or two. 

Adequate fertilization of the soil is absolutely necessary in 
order to make date palms produce fruit as heavily as commercial 
growers desire and at the same time yield well in offshoots. 
Nitrogen-gathering cover-crops are much in favor, sesbania 
or alfalfa being preferred in California. The long roots of the 
latter are useful to break up any hardpan or layer of hard silt 
which may be present. Many growers plant garden-truck 



206 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

between the rows of palms, especially while the latter are young 
and making no financial return. 

The soil in which date palms are usually grown is of a kind 
that benefits by the incorporation of rough material, and stable 
manure is, therefore, the fertilizer of first choice. Wheat-straw 
or similar loose stuff is frequently added with advantage. An 
annual application of fertilizer is required in most localities, 
and if the soil is sandy the grower must be more liberal. For 
palms producing offshoots, half a cubic yard a year is advised ; 
for older palms a full yard is desirable : both in addition to such 
cover-crop as the grower may select. 

In regard to irrigation, it is to be borne in mind that the soil 
must be kept moist during the entire year, and that the roots 
of the palm go deep. The character of the soil must be carefully 
and experimentally studied before the grower can be certain 
that he has arrived at the correct method for irrigation. The 
amount of water that the palm can stand in well-drained land 
is strikingly illustrated in the great plantings around Basrah, 
where fresh water is backed into the gardens by tidal flow, so 
that there are two automatic irrigations each day throughout 
the year. 

In the Coachella Valley, with furrow irrigation, a twenty- 
four-hour flow each twelve days from April to November has 
generally been satisfactory, although in many soils weekly 
irrigation is required. During the winter the rainfall usually 
suffices. Each application of fertilizer must be followed 
promptly by several irrigations. 

Pruning is not so important with date palms as with many 
fruit-trees. Dead leaves should be removed from young palms, 
and if the top growth is heavy the two lower rows of leaves may 
be removed when the palm is four years old. Regular pruning 
should begin about the sixth year, after which one row of leaves 
is usually removed at each midwinter. Drummond advises 
that "the leaves should not be pruned higher than the fruit 



THE DATE 207 

stems of the former crop, which will leave about four rows of 
leaves below the new fruit stems, or approximately 30 to 36 
expanded leaves." 

Propagation 

The date palm can be propagated in only two ways : by 
seed, and by the offshoots or suckers which spring up around 
the base or sometimes on the stem of the palm until it attains an 
age of ten to twenty years. 

Seedlings are easily grown, but offer little promise to the 
commercial grower. Half of the plants will be males, and 
among the females there will be such a wide variation that 
no uniformity of pack or quality can be secured. In regions 
with a large proportion of seedling palms, such as Spain and 
parts of Egypt, there is practically no commercial date-culture. 
Most growers in California plant a few seedlings for windbreak 
or ornamental purposes. These yield a supply of males, but 
males can be secured better by growing offshoots from male 
palms of known value. 

The multiplication of the date palm, therefore, is reduced 
in practice to the propagation of offshoots, and skill or lack 
thereof in this regard will determine largely the grower's success 
or failure at the outset. 

In California at the present time the yield of offshoots is 
almost as valuable as that of fruit, and growers, therefore, 
desire to secure as many offshoots of their best varieties as 
possible. For this purpose ample fertilization and irrigation 
must be supplied. After the fourth or fifth year of a palm's 
life, the owner can usually take at least two offshoots a year 
from it for a period of ten years. The best size for offshoots 
at removal is when they weigh from ten to fifteen pounds (say 
5 to 6 inches, is greatest diameter). The best season for the 
purpose is during February, March, or April. 



208 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Four or five days before the offshoots are to be removed 
from the mother-palm, their inner leaves should be cut back 
one-half and the outer leaves two-thirds of their length. It 
will be well worth while to have a special chisel made for re- 
moving offshoots. It should have a cutting bit of the best tool 
steel, 5 inches wide by 7 inches long, one side flat, the reverse 
beveled for 2 inches on the sides as well as on the cutting edge. 
The chisel should have a handle of soft iron 3 feet long and 1-j 
inches in diameter, such as can be hammered with a sledge- 
hammer. The delicate operation of cutting is described by 
Bruce Drummond, who is the best American authority on the 
culture of the palm, as follows : 

" To cut the offshoots from the tree the flat side of the chisel should 
always be facing the offshoot to be cut. Set the chisel well to the side 
of the base of the offshoot close to the main trunk. Drive it in with a 
sledge until below the point of union with the parent trunk ; then by 
manipulating the handle the chisel is easily loosened and cuts its way 
out. Next reverse and cut from the opposite side of the shoot until 
the two cuts come together. This operation will in most cases sever 
the offshoot from the trunk. No attempt to pry the offshoot from the 
tree should be made, as the tissues are so brittle that the terminal bud 
may be ruined by checking or cracking. In cutting offshoots directly 
at the base of the palm the soil should be dug away until the base of the 
offshoot is located and enough exposed to show the point of union with 
the mother plant. Then the chisel can be set without danger of cutting 
the roots of the parent tree so much as to injure or retard its growth. 
The connection of the offshoot on such varieties as Deglet Nur is very 
small, and there is no necessity of cutting deeply into the trunk to sever 
the offshoot from the tree." 

Once separated from its parent, the moist offshoot requires 
a period of seasoning before it is dry enough to be planted 
without danger of fermentation. Offshoots from the base of a 
palm are usually softer and sappier than those growing some 
distance above ground. The evaporation should amount to 
12 or 15 per cent of the total weight, which will require at least 
ten to fifteen days to effect. Offshoots are usually left where 
cut, on the ground beneath the palm, to season. 



THE DATE 209 

The Arabs plant offshoots at once in their permanent loca- 
tions in the orchard, but the best results will be obtained by first 
rooting the young plants in a shed or frame where the two 
necessary conditions of high temperature and high humidity can 
be maintained. In California this is often done cooperatively. 

A common type of shed for an individual grower is 12 by 20 
feet in size with side walls 6 and 7 feet high respectively, present- 
ing a roof-slope to the sun. The sides are usually of boards 
covered with tarred paper and the roof of 8- or 10-ounce canvas. 
In such a shed on an ordinary California summer day, the 
temperature will be about 115° and the humidity should be 
about 75. 

The soil inside the shed should be a light sandy loam, well 
drained. Ten inches of the top soil should be removed and 
replaced with fresh stable manure, well packed, on which 2 
inches of soil should be replaced. After a thorough flooding, 
the bed should be allowed to steam for a week, and then be 
flooded again, whereupon it is ready for the offshoots. These 
should be planted about 8 inches deep ;in any case the bud must 
be above danger of flooding. During the summer the bed 
must be flooded at least twice a week, to keep the humidity at as 
high a point as possible. The offshoots must be kept in it until 
they are thoroughly rooted and have half a dozen new leaves. 
This may require one year or may need several years. 

The causes that may lead to failure with offshoots are sum- 
marized by Drummond as : " (1) improper selection of the 
location for the nursery bed ; (2) failure to construct the frame 
so nearly air-tight as to insure the necessary humidity and high 
temperature; (3) improper methods of cutting and pruning, 
and the neglect of seasoning before planting in the nursery-bed ; 
and (4) the neglect of irrigation when necessary and failure 
to apply water properly. The points above mentioned are all 
essential to success, and to neglect one and observe the others 
may lead to as great a failure as to neglect them all." On the 



210 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



other hand, by using the proper care growers frequently succeed 
in making 90 to 95 per cent of their offshoots take root. 

After they are removed to the open field, the young palms 
should be protected by wrapping during the following winter 
from the possibility of freezing, as they are tender at first. 
Newspaper is as good as anything for the purpose; canvas, 

burlap, and palm-leaves are also 
used. 

For security, the orchardist 
should allow one or two male 
date palms for each acre of fruit- 
bearing trees. Care should be 
taken to secure males that flower 
early in the season and yield 
abundant fertile pollen; sterility 
is common. 

The female palm ordinarily 
blossoms between February and 
June (in California usually dur- 
ing March and April) . Flowers 
appearing later than May 1 are 
not worth pollinating, so far as 
commercial production is con- 
cerned. Artificial pollination 
has been practiced since the 
dawn of history, and offers no 
difficulties. 

The flowers of the two sexes can be distinguished readily 
(Fig., 28). The branchlets of the male inflorescence are only 
about 6 inches long, and are densely clustered at the end of 
the axis, while those of the female are several times as long and 
less densely clustered. The male blossoms are waxy white in 
color, the female more yellowish; while also the latter are 
much the less closely crowded together on the branchlets. 




Fig. 28. On the left, a sprig of 
staminate or pollen-bearing flowers 
of the date palm ; on the right, pis- 
tillate flowers which wUl, if properly 
pollinated, develop into fruits. 



THE DATE 211 

The presence of pollen in the male flower is in most cases 
easily to be detected by shaking a cluster of the blossoms. 

As soon as the spathe containing the pollen-bearing flowers 
opens, it should be cut and put into a large paper bag to dry, the 
bag being stored, open, in a dry room. Thoroughly dry pollen 
will retain its vitality for many years, and a small quantity 
should be kept in a bottle from year to year, as a precaution. 
In case of need it can be used with a wad of cotton. 

The pistillate flowers should be pollinated as soon as the 
spathes crack open, the plantation being inspected every day 
or two with this in view. The operation is preferably carried 
out about midday. The split female spathe is held open, and a 
sprig from the male flower gently shaken over it and then tied, 
open flowers downward, at the top of the female cluster. A 
single pollination with one sprig is enough for each cluster 
unless rain follows within twenty-four hours, in which case 
the operation should be repeated. The grower should keep 
the situation well in hand. 

The grower must not let his young palms bear too many 
dates, particularly if he wants them to produce offshoots at the 
same time. Part of the female spadices (flower-stalks) should, 
therefore, be cut off. In most cases a palm may be allowed 
to bear its first two bunches of fruit in its fourth year, and three 
or four bunches in each of the next two years. If even a full- 
grown palm is allowed to bear to its limit in any year, it is likely 
to bear less the following season. 

In case the grower should find himself absolutely without 
date pollen at a time when his pistillate trees are flowering, 
he may have recourse to the pollen of some other Phoenix, or 
even of a different genus of palms, Chamserops, Washingtonia, 
or whatever it may be. This will often enable him to save 
part, if not all, of the crop. 



212 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Yield and Season 

Most varieties of date palm, if properly cared for, will begin 
to bear in the fourth year, and should yield a considerable 
return in the fifth and succeeding years. Under Arab treat- 
ment they usually take longer. References in the Code of 
Hammurabi (about 2000 B.C.) indicate that the Babylonians 
at that time could secure a paying crop in the fourth year ; if 
so, they were better cultivators than their modern descendants. 

Beginning with two small bunches, the grower may allow 
his palms to bear an increasing amount each year until maximum 
is reached. After the fifth, sixth, or seventh year, 100 pounds 
or thereabouts to a tree can be maintained steadily without 
difficulty by most varieties, and one or two offshoots a year will 
still be produced, given proper fertilization and irrigation. 
In many cases even larger yields can be obtained. If, however, 
the growing palm is not given proper culture, for instance is 
allowed to carry a full load of offshoots, and, simultaneously, to 
bear all the fruit that it can, it tends to become an intermittent 
bearer, bringing in a large crop one year and little or nothing 
the next. This should be avoided by eliminating the conditions 
named. 

The season of ripening is from May to December, depending 
on variety and location. Fresh dates as early as May can be 
secured in favored locations in Arabia, where certain early 
kinds are grown. They have not yet been produced so early in 
the United States, where the first dates do not ripen until July. 
In many regions very late varieties will carry fruit into mid- 
winter. In California and at Basrah the height of the season is 
September; in Egypt, August; in western Arabia, July; in 
Algeria, September or early October. As a general rule, the 
dates of best quality are late in ripening and the early dates 
are soft varieties which must be consumed fresh as they lack 
the necessary amount of sugar to keep without fermenting. 



THE DATE 213 

American growers will find an advantage in fairly early varieties 
(other considerations agreeing), as the crop can thus be disposed 
of without competition, say before November 1, at about 
which time dates from Persian Gulf or North African sources 
can be put on the market, possibly at lower prices. 

Picking and Packing 

The picking process offers no particular problems, although 
the methods are not the same with all varieties. Usually two 
persons can pick together conveniently, one holding the basket 
and the other gathering the dates and placing them in it. 
Under favorable conditions, some varieties will mature a whole 
bunch so evenly that it can be removed entire without loss, 
but in many cases it is necessary to pick out the different 
"threads" carrying dates, and cut them separately, leaving 
those whose fruit is not yet mature for another day. It is 
advisable, with kinds that permit of it, to leave the calyx on 
the fruit, since if this is pulled off it opens an avenue for the 
entrance of insects and dirt. Bunches left to ripen on the 
tree frequently need to be protected by a bag of cheese-cloth or 
similar material, to keep off birds and insects. 

Dates grown for home use need no treatment after picking 
unless it be a washing to remove the dust. If they are to be 
kept for some time, they may well be pasteurized to free them 
of insect eggs and the bacteria of fermentation and decay. 
Small quantities of fruit can be treated successfully in the oven 
of a cookstove, pains being taken by regulating the aperture 
of the door, to keep the temperature between 180° and 190° 
for three hours. This may slightly alter the taste ; sterilization 
by exposure overnight to the fumes of carbon bisulfide is easy 
and causes no change of flavor. 

There are many advantages in ripening dates artificially 
rather than leaving them to mature on the tree ; hence some 



214 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

method of artificial ripening has been practiced in most date- 
growing countries since the time of the earliest written records. 
Much careful experimentation has been done in this country, 
first by the Arizona Experiment Station and later by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. As a result, such 
simple, satisfactory, and inexpensive methods of maturing dates 
have been worked out that the commercial grower will do well 
to rely on them. The exact process differs with the variety 
and with the conditions under which the dates have to ripen; 
for the precise technique advisable in his case the grower must 
either refer to those who have had the experience he needs, 
or experiment on a few dates for himself, after he has grasped 
the general principles. 

As W. T. Swingle points out, a date is botanically mature, 
or "tree ripe" as horticulturists say, as soon as it reaches 
full size and the seed is fully developed. At this stage, however, 
the date is still astringent and not eatable. Following this 
comes a process that may be called "ripening for eating," 
consisting of complex chemical transformations by which the 
sugars are altered and the tannin deposited in insoluble form 
in " giant cells." This final ripening is brought about by the 
combination of heat and a certain degree of humidity. 

The principle underlying modern methods of artificial ripening 
is, therefore, to expose the dates to a constant high temperature, 
while holding them in the humid atmosphere which is created 
by the moisture they naturally give off as they dry and wrinkle. 

For this purpose the dates are picked when they first begin 
to soften. Most varieties at this stage show translucent spots 
while the remainder of the berry is still hard and remains bright 
red or yellow in color. Dates taken from the tree in this condi- 
tion will ripen successfully in three or four days if they are 
packed loosely, stems and all, into a tightly closed box and left 
at ordinary room temperature, the room being closed at night 
to keep out cold air. Commercial growers provide a special 



THE DATE 215 

house, or a room built in the packing-shed for this purpose. 
This is so constructed as to be air-tight when closed, so that the 
temperature can be maintained at an even figure, without varia- 
tion of more than a degree or two, by means of an electric light 
or a lamp with thermostat attachment such as is used in the 
incubators of poultrymen. Under such conditions, dates will 
be brought to a beautiful even maturity and practically without 
loss by keeping them from twenty-four to seventy-two hours 
at a temperature of 110° to 120°. 

The skillful grower will control further the ripening of his 
dates by irrigation. In some climates, like that of Upper 
Egypt and of the Coachella Valley in some seasons, a typically 
"soft" date like Deglet Nur will mummify on the palm, as it 
matures, until it becomes a "dry" date. This can be avoided 
by keeping the palms well irrigated while the dates are ripen- 
ing. On the other hand, "soft" varieties sometimes "go to 
pieces" and ferment on the tree, because of too much moisture; 
in this case the soil must be kept dry during the ripening season. 

The packing of dates is a matter for the grower's own taste, 
or for standardization by the cooperative association to which he 
may belong. Good dates of standard varieties are usually 
packed in layers in one-pound cardboard boxes, like sweet- 
meats. In California, where home-grown dates bring fancy 
prices, great pains are taken with this finest quality of fruit, 
w^hich is easily retailed at $1 a pound. 

Most dates worth marketing in the United States are worth 
packing in cartons. In Arizona, berry-boxes have been used. 
The American standard for bulk shipment is the lug-box of 
30 to 40 pounds' capacity. It is important, in any case, that the 
pack be uniform, both in size and variety ; otherwise the grower 
can expect to receive only "cull" prices. 

Many varieties, such as Zahidi, ripen well in the bunch and 
adhere indefinitely. It is probable that a profitable trade can 
be developed in marketing entire bunches of these, which the 



216 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

retail dealer can display in his store as he does a bunch of 
bananas. Dates of inferior quality can be worked up into 
various by-products, such as "date butter," or sweetmeats, 
or may be sold to bakers and confectioners. Culls are used in 
the Orient for the distillation of arrak, or as feed for live-stock. 
Soft early dates, which in many cases are of a beautiful color 
as well as delicious flavor but which lack keeping quality, prob- 
ably could be sold in crates as are berries and be similarly 
handled as perishable fruits. Marketing should be carried on 
through a growers' cooperative association, which can guard the 
interests of all by insisting on proper standards. 

For a bearing plantation with fifty palms to the acre, 100 
pounds of fruit to a tree each year is a conservative estimate of 
the yield. This means 5000 pounds of fruit an acre each year, 
the retail value ranging from 2 cents a pound in the Orient to 
$1 a pound in the United States. Growers in the Coachella 
Valley have been able for some years to sell practically all the 
good dates they produce at 25 cents to 75 cents a pound at the 
plantation. Such a price is not likely to be maintained, since 
dates of many varieties can be grown, picked, and packed at a 
total cost of not more than 5 cents a pound ; but there are no 
present indications of an early decrease in price. If it should 
fall to an average of 20 cents a pound, this would still allow the 
satisfactory gross income of $1000 an acre from fruit alone, 
while the offshoots of good varieties at present prices ($5 to $15 
each) are a valuable factor and may be worth almost as much 
to the orchardist as the fruit. Offshoots, in fact, should more 
than pay the whole cost of running a young plantation, leaving 
the entire proceeds from the fruit as clear profit. 

Pests and Diseases 

There are two scale insects, found wherever dates grow, that 
are troublesome to the orchardist. The Parlatoria scale 



THE DATE 217 

(Parlatoria blanchardii Targ, Tozz.) remains dormant during 
the winter but is active in summer, sucking the plant juices 
from the leaves at the time when growth is most vigorous. 
The following description of the insect is condensed from 
T. D. A. Cockerell : To the naked eye the scales appear as 
small dark gray or black specks, edged with white. If the scale 
is lifted by means of a pin or the point of a knife, the soft, 
plump and juicy female, of a rose-pink color, is found under- 
neath. The male scales, which are rarely seen, are much 
smaller and narrower than those of the female. About the 
middle of March the female lays eggs; the larvae hatch a 
fortnight later, crawl about restlessly for a time, and then 
settle down for the remainder of their lives. 

The treatment is by dipping the offshoots in a solution of 1 
gallon of Cresolin, 4 gallons of distillate, and 95 gallons of water. 
Mature palms may be sprayed with the same mixture. By 
these methods this scale is eventually eliminated. 

The more dangerous Marlatt scale {Phoenicococcus marlatti 
Ckll.) is wine-colored, and secretes a white waxy substance. 
It usually lives at the base of the leaves, "inside" the palm, 
where it is almost inaccessible, coming out at intervals to molt. 
It can be destroyed by dipping the offshoots and following this 
by periodic spraying. 

Date palms in moist regions are often attacked by parasitic 
fungi, which, however, yield to bordeaux mixture or other 
standard fungicides. 

In some regions the palm is attacked by a borer (Rhynco- 
phorus) which, if not destroyed, is fatal to the tree. The only 
successful treatment seems to be to watch for the intruder and 
kill it before it has penetrated too far. Locusts, grasshoppers, 
rats, gophers, ants, bees, wasps, birds, and the like give trouble 
in various localities. The treatment resorted to against these 
pests in connection with other cultures will also serve for the 
date palm orchard. 



218 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Stored dates are likely to become infested with such common 
enemies of stored foods as the fig-moth {Ephestia cautella 
Walker) and the Indian meal-moth (Plodia interpundella 
Hiibner) , The best protection against these is a packing-house 
that is reasonably insect-proof and is fumigated at the beginning 
of each season. The modern methods of preparing dates for 
the market usually include some system of disinfection which 
kills insect eggs. It is reported that in Egypt dates for export 
are dipped in dilute alcohol, or in alcohol and glycerine. " Dry " 
dates can be scalded ; "soft" dates are, in America, frequently 
pasteurized by dry heat or by fumigation. 

Varieties and Classification 

Several thousand varieties of dates have been recognized, 
but those which have any commercial importance are limited 
to a few score, while those that are of real merit number only 
a few dozen, since many kinds owe their reputation not to 
excellence of flavor but, as do the Elberta peach and the Ben 
Davis apple, to good shipping and keeping qualities. 

Varieties are usually classified as "soft" (or "wet") and 
"dry," Orientals classify them by color (yellow or red, 
before they are cured); by keeping quality; and as "hot" 
and "cold," according to whether a long-continued diet of them 
"burns" the stomach or not. 

The classification of "soft" and "dry" (which sometimes 
has been complicated and confused by the insertion of an inter- 
mediate class of "semi-dry") is commercially convenient, but 
not absolute; for practically any soft date may become a 
dry date under certain atmospheric conditions, and most 
dry dates can be made soft by proper management and arti- 
ficial maturation. 

The dry dates predominate in most parts of North Africa, 
including Egypt, being preferred by the nomads because they 



THE DATE 219 

are easily packed and not likely to spoil. On the other hand, 
practically all of the dates which the world recognizes as 
valuable are soft varieties. In the following list, which in- 
cludes the most important kinds from throughout the world, 
there is only one unmistakably dry date (Thuri), which, though 
recognized as good in its Algerian home, is given a place in this 
list mainly because it has succeeded particularly well in Calir 
fornia. There are three others (Asharasi, Kasbeh, and Zahidi) 
that would probably be considered dry, but cannot be un- 
equivocably placed in that class. Asharasi and Kasbeh are 
much softer than the typical dry date, while Zahidi at one stage 
of its maturity is typically soft, and is widely sold in that condi- 
tion, although if left long enough on the palm it becomes actually 
a dry date. All the other varieties in the list are typically soft, 
but most, if not all, of them will be converted into dry dates if 
left to ripen on the trees in a sufficiently hot and dry climate. 

The American and European markets are accustomed only 
to soft dates, and as most of the good varieties are soft, growers 
will naturally give attention to soft kinds by preference. A 
market for dry dates, in America at least, will have to be created 
before any large quantity can be sold. Nevertheless, Americans 
who have eaten good dry dates usually like them, and fre- 
quently consider them preferable to those soft dates, such as 
Halawi and Khadhrawi, which (often under the trade name of 
Golden Dates) have until recently been almost the only varieties 
on the American market. 

Amri. — Form oblong, broadest slightly above the center and 
bluntly pointed at the apex; size very large, length 2 to 2 J inches, 
breadth 1 to 1^ inches ; surface deep reddish brown in color, coarsely 
wrinkled ; skin thick, not adhering to the flesh throughout ; flesh 
about I inch thick, coarse, fibrous, somewhat sticky, and with much 
rag close to the seed ; flavor sweet, but not delicate ; seed oblong, IJ to 
1| inches long, rough, with the ventral channel broad and shallow, 
and the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Season late. 

More extensively exported from Egypt than any other variety. 
It is not, however, a first-class date. It is large and attractive in appear- 



220 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

ance, but inferior in flavor. The keeping and shipping qualities are 
unusually good. Named probably from Amr, a common personal name. 

Asharasi. — Form ovate to oblong-ovate, broadest near the base 
and pointed at the apex ; size medium, length 1| to If inches, breadth 
I to If inches; surface hard, rough, straw-colored around the base, 
translucent brownish amber toward the apex ; sldn dry, thin, coarsely 
wrinkled ; flesh I inch thick, at basal end of fruit hard, opaque, creamy 
white in color, toward tip becoming translucent amber, fli'm ; flavor 
rich, sweet, and nutty; seed oblong-eUiptic, pointed at apex, f to | 
inch long, smooth, the ventral channel almost closed, and the germ-pore 
nearer base than apex. Ripens midseason. 

Syn. Ascherasi. The best dry date of Mesopotamia, if not of 
the world. It can be used as a soft date ; having always some trans- 
lucent flesh at the apical end of the fruit, it has by some writers been 
classed as semi-dry. Grown principally in the vicinity of Baghdad; 
now also in the United States, where it succeeds weU. The name means 
Tall-growing. 

Deglet Nur. — Form slender oblong to oblong-elliptic, widest near 
the center and rounded at the apex ; size large, length 1 J to If inches, 
breadth | to | inch; surface smooth or slightly wrinkled, maroon in 
color ; skin thin, often separating from the flesh in loose folds ; flesh j 
inch thick, deep golden-brown in color, soft and melting, conspicuously 
translucent ; flavor delicate, mild, very sweet ; seed oblong-eUiptie, 
.pointed at both ends, about 1 inch long, with the ventral channel 
shallow and partly closed, the germ-pore at center. Season late. 

Syns. Deglet Noor, Deglet en-Nour. This variety is considered the 
finest grown in Algeria and Tunisia, where its commercial cultivation is 
extensive, and it is highly esteemed in California, where it holds at 
present first rank among dates planted commercially. Its defects 
are a tendency to ferment if kept for several months, and the immense 
amount of heat required to mature it properly. The name is properly 
transliterated Daqlet al-Nur, meaning Date of the Light, an allusion 
to its translucency. 

Fardh. — Form oblong, widest near the middle and rounded at the 
apex; size small to medium, length about Ij inches, breadth about f 
inch ; surface shining, deep dark brown in color, almost smooth ; skin 
rather thin, tender ; flesh | to f inch thick, firm, russet brown ; flavor 
sweet with a rather strong after-taste ; seed small, length f inch. 
Ripens midseason. 

Syn. Fard. This is the great commercial date of Oman, in eastern 
Arabia. It has recently been planted in California ; American markets 
are thoroughly familiar with the fruit through the large importations 
-which are annually made from Oman. While inferior in quality to 
many other varieties, Fardh holds its shape well when packed and 
keeps weU. For these reasons it is a valuable commercial variety. 



THE DATE 221 

According to modern Omani etymologists, the name means The 
Separated, because of the way the dates are arranged in the bunch ; but 
the ancients, who are entitled to more credit, spell it in a way that 
means The Apportioned. 

Ghars. — Form oblong to obovate, narrowest near the rounded 
apex; size large to very large, length 1| to 2 inches, breadth about | 
inch ; surface somewhat shining, bay colored ; skin soft and tender ; 
flesh f inch thick, soft, sirupy, slightly translucent ; flavor sweet and 
rich ; seed oblong, f to 1 inch long, with the ventral channel deep and 
sometimes closed near the middle, and the germ-pore at center. Season 
early. 

Syns. Rhars, R'ars. One of the commonest soft dates in North 
Africa, esteemed for its earliness in ripening, its productiveness, and 
the abiUty of the plant to resist large amounts of alkali and much 
neglect. In California it has proved to be a strong grower, but the 
fruit is not so good as that of several other varieties, and also ferments 
easily. The name means Vigorous Grower. , 

Halawi. — Form slender-oblong to oblong-ovate, broadly pointed 
or blunt at the apex ; size large, length 1 1 to If inches, breadth about 
I inch; surface slightly rough, translucent bright golden-brown in 
color ; skin thin but rather tough ; flesh | to j-\ inch thick, firm, golden- 
amber in color, tender; flavor sweet and honey-like, but not rich; 
seed slender oblong, | inch long, with the ventral channel broadly 
open. Ripens midseason. 

This is the great commercial date of Mesopotamia, and probably the 
most important variety in the world, as regards quantity sold. It is 
grown chiefly around Basrah, at the head of the Persian Gulf. It has 
good keeping and shipping qualities, but is not esteemed by the Arabs 
for eating ; in American markets, however, it is preferred to several 
other varieties because of its attractive color. Both in California and 
in Arizona Halawi has succeeded remarkably well. The name means 
The Sweet. 

Hayani. — Form oblong-elliptic, broadest slightly below the center 
and rounded at the apex ; size very large, length 2 to 2^ inches, breadth 
1 to li inches; surface dark brown in color, smooth; skin thick, 
separating readily from the flesh ; flesh about I inch thick, light brown 
in color, soft ; flavor sweet, lacking richness ; seed oblong, sometimes 
narrowed toward the apex, Ij to If inches long, with the ventral 
channel broad and deep, and the germ-pore usually | inch from the base. 
Ripens midseason. 

Syns. Hayany, Birket al Hajji, Birket el Haggi, Birket el Hadji, and 
Birkawi. One of the most satisfactory Egyptian dates in California 
and Arizona. It is precocious and prolific, and has proved to be more 
frost-resistant than many other varieties. The plant is unusually orna- 
mental in appearance. The variety is named after the village of Hayan. 



222 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Kasbeh. — Form oblong-ovate, widest near the base and broadly 
pointed at the apex; size large, about If inches long, | inch broad; 
surface golden-brown to chestnut in color ; skin thin but fairly tough ; 
flesh j\ inch thick, firm, but never hard, tender ; flavor sweet, glightly 
heavy but not clojdng ; seed oblong-elliptic, almost an inch long, the 
ventral channel open and deep, the germ-pore nearer base than apex. 
Season late. 

Syns. Kesba, Kessebi, El Kseba. A variety of ancient origin, exten- 
sively cultivated in Algeria and Tunisia. Before Deglet Nur came into 
the field it was considered the finest date in North Africa. It is valued 
in California, where it has been found to have excellent keeping and 
shipping qualities as well as good flavor. The name means The Profit- 
able. 

Khadhrawi. — Form oblong to oblong-elliptic, widest near the 
center and broadly pointed at the apex ; size medium to large, length 
li to If inches, breadth f to | inch ; surface translucent orange-brown 
in color, overspread with a thin blue-gray bloom ; skin firm, rather 
tough ; flesh, ts to I inch thick, firm, translucent, amber-brown in 
color ; flavor rich, never cloying ; seed oblong-obovate to oblong- 
elliptic, I inch long, the ventral channel narrow or almost closed. 
Ripens midseason. 

Syns. Khadrawi, Khudrawee. One of the most important commer- 
cial varieties of Mesopotamia, ranking second only to Halawi. It is a 
better date than the latter, but not so highly esteemed on the American 
market because of its slightly darker color. In California it has been 
grown with great success. The name means The Verdant. 

Khalaseh. — Form oblong to oblong-ovate, broadest near the center 
and rounded to broadly pointed at the apex; size medium, length If 
to If inches, breadth | to f inch; surface smooth, orange-brown to 
reddish amber in color, with a satiny sheen ; skin firm, but tender ; 
flesh I inch thick, firm, tender, reddish amber in color, free from fiber ; 
fiavor delicate, with the characteristic date taste in a desirable degree ; 
seed oblong-eUiptic, pointed at both ends, | to f inch long, the ventral 
channel almost closed. Ripens roidseason. 

Syns. Khalasa, Khalasi, Khalas. The most famous date of the 
Persian Gulf region, and unquestionably one of the finest in the world. 
It is grown principally at Hofhuf in the district of Hasa ; a few palms 
have been planted in the United States, and have produced fruit of 
superior quality. Khalaseh likes a dry situation and sandy soil. It is 
not a heavy bearer, but is precocious. The name means Quintessence. 

Khustawi. — Form oblong-oval, broadest near center and rounded 
at apex; size small to medium, length 1 to 1| inches, breadth | to | 
inch ; surface smooth, glossy, translucent orange-brown in color ; 
skin thin and delicate ; flesh | inch thick, soft and delicate in texture, 
translucent golden-brown in color ; flavor unusually rich yet not cloy- 



THE DATE 223 

ing, with the characteristic date taste in a desirable degree ; seed 
oblong-obovate, | inch long, pointed at both ends, with the ventral 
channel open. Ripens midseason. 

Syns. Khastawi, Kustawi, originally Khastawani (Persian). A 
delicious dessert date from Baghdad. It has proved well adapted to 
conditions in the date-growing regions of America. It is not a heavy 
bearer, but the fruit possesses good keeping qualities. The name means ' 
The Date of the Grandees. 

Majhul. — Form broadly oblong to oblong-ovate, broadest at 
center to slightly nearer base and broadly pointed at apex ; size very 
large, length 2 inches, breadth IJ inches; surface wrinkled, deep 
reddish brown in color ; skin thin and tender ; flesh | inch thick, firm, 
meaty, brownish amber in color, translucent, with no fiber around seed ; 
flavor rich and delicious ; seed elliptic, IJ inches long, with the germ- 
pore nearest the base and the ventral channel almost closed. Season 
late. 

Syns. Medjool, Medjeheul. A variety of large size and good keeping 
qualities, from the Tafilalet oases in the Moroccan Sahara, whence the 
fruit is exported to Europe. Probably suited only to the hottest and 
driest regions in the United States. The name means Unknown. 

Maktum. — Form broadly oblong to oblong-obovate, usually broad- 
est near center and rounded at the apex ; size medium, length 1^ to 1^ 
inches, breadth | to 1 inch ; surface somewhat glossy, translucent 
golden-brown in color ; skin firm, wrinkled, rather thin ; flesh | to f 
inch thick, soft, almost melting, light golden-brown in color ; flavor 
mild, sweet, similar to that of Deglet Nur. Season late. 

Syn. Maktoom, originally Makdum. A rare variety from Mesopo- 
tamia which has proved admirably adapted to conditions in California, 
although not resistant to frost. It is large and of fine quality. The 
palm is a vigorous grower. The name means The Bitten. 

Manakhir. — Form oblong, rounded at the apex ; size very large, 
length 2 to 2| inches, breadth slightly more than 1 inch ; surface smooth, 
brownish maroon in color, with a purplish bloom ; skin thin and tender ; 
flesh i inch thick, soft and melting, with fiber around the seed ; flavor 
delicate, resembling that of Deglet Nur ; seed oblong, 1 inch long, with 
the germ-pore nearer the base and the ventral channel frequently 
closed. Season late. 

Syns. Menakher, Monakhir. A rare and large-fruited variety from 
Tunis, of which only a few palms exist in the United States. In this 
country it is not a date of the best quality. The name means The 
Nose Date. 

Saidi. — - Form oblong-ovate, broadest near the base and blunt 
at the apex ; size large, length 1 ^ inches, breadth about 1 inch ; sur- 
face almost smooth, brownish maroon in color, overspread with a 
bluish bloom; skin thin, tender; flesh tV inch thick, red-brown in 



224 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

color, firm ; flavor very sweet, almost cloying ; seed oblong-eUiptic, | 
incli long, the germ-pore slightly nearer the base and the ventral channel 
almost closed. Ripens in midseason. 

Syns. Saidy, Wahi. One of the most important varieties of Upper 
Egypt. It is not considered so good in quality as some of the Algerian 
and Mesopotamian varieties, but it is a heavy bearer, though it requires 
a hot climate to ripen perfectly. The name indicates that it comes 
from Said or Upper Egypt. 

Tabirzal. — Form broadly oblong-obovate, broadest below center 
and broadly pointed at the apex ; size medium, length 1| to 1| inches, 
breadth f to 1| inches; surface translucent deep orange-brown in 
color, with a blue-gray bloom ; skin thin and tender, coarsely wrinkled ; 
flesh \ inch thick, soft and tender, translucent orange-brown in color ; 
flavor distinctive, mUd and pleasant, sweet but not cloying ; seed 
broadly oblong, f to | inch long, with the ventral channel narrow. 
Season late. 

One of the best dates grown at Baghdad. In the United States it 
is Uttle known as yet. Originally Tabirzad (Persian) meaning Sugar 
Candy. 

Thuri. — Form oblong, broadest near center and bluntly pointed 
at apex; size large, length If inches, breadth \ inch; surface reddish 
chestnut color, overspread with a bluish bloom ; skin thin ; flesh y^ 
inch thick, firm and nearly dry but not hard or brittle, golden-brown 
in color ; flavor sweet, nutty and delicate ; seed oblong, 1 inch long, 
the ventral channel deep and partly closed, the germ-pore nearer the 
base. A midseason date. 

Syns. Thoory, Tsuri. One of the best Algerian dry dates. It is 
large, not too hard, and of excellent flavor ; the palm bears heavily 
and the clusters are of exceptional size. In California it has proved 
very satisfactory. The name means The Bull's Date. 

Zahidi. — Form oblong-obovate, broadest near the rounded apex ; 
size medium, length 1^ inches, breadth | inch; surface smooth, glossy, 
translucent golden-yellow in color, sometimes golden-brown; skin 
rather thick and tough ; flesh | inch thick, translucent golden-yellow 
close to the skin, whitish near the seed, soft, meaty, and full of sirup ; 
flavor sweet, sugary, and not at all cloying ; seed oblong, | inch long, 
the ventral channel open. Season early. 

Syns. Zehedi, Zadie, originally Azadi (Persian). A remarkable 
date, the principal commercial variety of Baghdad. It can be used 
as a soft date (as described above) or as a dry date, depending on the 
length of time it is allowed to remain on the palm. The tree is vigorous, 
hardy, resistant to drought, and prolific in fruiting. The name means 
NobUity. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 

The papaya (sometimes called papaw) and the passion- 
flowers are closely related, and the fruit-bearing kinds are 
treated together in this chapter. Some botanists place them 
all in one family even though the papaya is an erect plant and 
the passion-flowers are tendril-bearing vines ; but recent botan- 
ists separate them into the Caricace?e (or Papayacese) and 
Passifloraceffi. In botanical structure, the fruits are very sim- 
ilar, and they are related not distantly to the Cucurbitacese 
(pumpkins and melons). 

The Papaya (Plate XI) 

(Carica Papaya, L.) 

"There is also a fruite," wrote the Dutch traveler Linschoten 
in 1598, "that came out of the Spanish Indies, brought from 
beyond ye Philipinas or Lusons to Malacca, and fro thence 
to India, it is called Papaios, and is very like a Mellon. . . and 
will not grow, but alwaies two together, that is male and 
female . . . and when they are diuided and set apart one from 
the other, then they yield no fruite at all." 

The facility with which the papaya is propagated by means 
of its seeds made possible its rapid dissemination throughout 
the tropics, when once the Discovery had opened up routes 
of travel between its native home in the Western Hemisphere 
and the regions in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia favorable to its 
growth. In many places it early attained the position of im- 
Q 225 



226 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

portance among cultivated fruits which it holds at the present 
day. Higgins and Holt say of it : " Excepting the banana, 
there is no fruit grown in the Hawaiian Islands that means 
more to the people of this territory than the papaya, if measured 
in terms of the comfort and enjoyment furnished to the people 
as a whole." 

It may fairly be said, perhaps, that the northern cantaloupe 
is replaced in Hawaii and other tropical regions by the papaya, 
a fruit which, in its better varieties, is a worthy rival of the 
melon. It is adapted to a wide range of territory; it comes 
into bearing when a few months old ; and it yields most abun- 
dantly of its handsome fruits. The presence of inferior varie- 
ties in many regions has detracted from the prestige of the 
papaya, but its intrinsic merit is beyond dispute. It is the 
duty of tropical horticulture to encourage the dissemination of 
the better forms and further to improve them by means of 
breeding. Considerable attention has already been devoted 
to this subject, but much remains to be done. The rapidity 
with which seedlings can be brought to fruiting stage makes 
papaya-breeding a much less tedious process than is the case 
with the hard- wooded tree-fruits. 

It has always been a source of wonder to those unfamiliar 
with the species that a plant so large as a mature papaya could 
be produced in so short a time. The poet Waller ^ wrote in 
1635 with but slight exaggeration of the literal fact : 

"The Palma Christi and the fair Papaw . 

Now but a seed (preventing Nature's Law) 
In half the circle of the hasty year, 
Project a shade, and lovely fruits do wear." 

The papaya, a giant herbaceous plant rather than a tree, 
grows to a height of 25 feet, and is often likened to a palm in 
general appearance, although there is no botanical relationship. 

1 Battle of the Summer Islands. 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 



227 



The trunk bears no lateral branches, but sometimes divides to 
form several erect stems, which produce at their tops large 
deeply-lobed leaves sometimes 2 feet across, upon hollow 
petioles 2 feet or more in length. The wood is fleshy, the bark 
smooth, grayish brown, marked by conspicuous leaf-scars. 

The papaya is normally dioecious (Fig. 29) and produces its 
flowers in the uppermost leaf- 
axils, the staminate blossoms 
sessile on pendent racemes 3 feet 
or more in length, the pistillate 
ones subsessile and usually soli- 
tary or in few-flowered corymbs. 
The staminate flowers are fun- 
nel-shaped, about an inch long, 
whitish, the corolla five-lobed, 
with ten stamens in the throat ; 
the pistillate flowers are consid- 
erably larger, with five fleshy 
petals connate toward the base, 
a large, cylindrical or globose, 
superior ovary, and five sessile 
fan-shaped stigmas. 

The fruit is commonly spheri- 
cal or cylindrical in form, round 
or obscurely five-angled in trans- 
verse section, from 3 up to 20 
or more inches in length, and 
sometimes weighing as much 
as 20 pounds. In general character it strongly resembles 
a melon ; the skin is thin, smooth on the exterior, orange- 
yellow to deep orange in color; the flesh, which is deep 
yellow to salmon-colored, being from 1 to 2 inches thick 
and inclosing a large, sometimes five-angled, cavity, to the 
walls of which are attached the numerous round, wrinkled. 




Fig. 29. Flowers of the papaya : 
the cluster and the single flower to 
its left are staminate (male) , and the 
larger flower to the right is pistillate 
(female). Sometimes the organs of 
both sexes are found in the same 
flower, but this condition cannot be 
considered normal. (X about |) 



228 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

blackish seeds, the size of small peas, inclosed by a thin gelat- 
inous aril. 

The flavor is rather sweet, with a slight musky tang which 
is sometimes objectionable to the novice, and which varies 
greatly in degree ; the best types being of a bland agreeable 
taste which is almost sure to be relished. In Brazil the flavor 
is believed to be improved if the fruit is lightly scored when 
taken from the tree, and then allowed to stand for a day so 
that the milky juice may run out. 

The native home of the papaya is known to be in tropical 
America, but the exact area in which it originated has not been 
determined. Jacques Huber, after reviewing the evidence 
presented by Alphonse DeCandolle and others, reached the 
conclusion that the species originally came from Mexico. 
Count Solms-Laubach, who monographed the Caricaceae, be- 
lieves that the cultivated papaya may have originated as a 
cross between some of the species of Carica native to Mexico. 

The plant is now widely distributed. In nearly all parts of 
tropical America it is one of the common fruits. It is abun- 
dant in India, Ceylon, and the Malay Archipelago. In Hawaii 
it probably attains greater comparative importance than in 
any other region. It is common in Australia, where it is culti- 
vated as far south as Sydney. 

In the United States it has been planted in Florida and Cali- 
fornia. It is entirely successful in the southern part of Florida, 
but in California its cultivation is limited to the most protected 
situations, and even there the fruit produced is not of good 
quality. 

The name papaya is held to be a corruption of the Carib 
ababai. In one form or another it has been carried around the 
world ; papaia, papeya, and papia are some of the corrup- 
tions which are in use. The English name papaw is widely 
employed, but in the southern United States its use has the dis- 
advantage of confusing this fruit with Asimina triloba. The 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 229 

Portuguese name, current in Brazil, is mamdo (probably re- 
ferring to the mammiform apex of the fruit) ; in French the 
fruit is called papaye, in German papaja, and in Italian papaia. 
Several other names are used in tropical America, notably 
fruta de homha in Cuba, lechosa in Porto Rico, melon zapote in 
parts of Mexico, and tree-melon in English-speaking countries. 
Botanically the species is Carica Papaya, L. 

While most commonly used, perhaps, as a breakfast-fruit, 
like the muskmelon or cantaloupe in northern countries, the 
papaya can be prepared in numerous ways. In Brazil it is 
served as a dessert, sliced, with the addition of a little sugar and 
whipped cream. As a salad, in combination with lettuce, it is 
excellent. As a crystallized fruit it is good, but has not much 
character. When green it is sometimes boiled and served as 
a vegetable, much as summer-squash is in the North, It can 
also be made into pickles, preserves, jellies, pies, and sherbets. 
When used as a breakfast-fruit, it is cut in halves longitudinally, 
and after the seeds are removed served with the addition of 
lemon juice, salt and pepper, or sugar, according to taste. 

The fruit of the papaya, as well as all other parts of the plant, 
contains a milky juice in which an active principle known as 
papain is present. This enzyme, which was first separated by 
Theodore Peckholt, greatly resembles animal pepsin in its 
digestive action, and in recent years has become an article of 
commerce. Aside from its value as a remedy in dyspepsia and 
kindred ailments, it has been utilized for the clarification of 
beer. Its digestive action has long been recognized in the 
tropics, as is evidenced by the common practice of the natives, 
who rub the juice over meat to make it tender, or, in preparing 
a fowl, wrap it in papaya leaves and let it remain overnight 
before cooking it. 

Much has been written concerning the preparation and 
properties of papain. Lengthy accounts will be found in the 
Philippine Journal of Science, Section A, January, 1915 ; Agri- 



230 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

culture (Habana, Cuba), April, 1917; the Tropical Agricultur- 
ist (Colombo, Ceylon) No. 3, 1915 ; and the American Jour- 
nal of Pharmacy, 1901. 

Alice R. Thompson of Hawaii has published the following 
analyses of several different seedling strains grown at Honolulu : 

Table IV. Composition of the Papaya 



Strain 


Total 
Solids 


Ash 


Acids 


Protein 


Total 

Sugars 


Fat 


Fiber 




% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Trinidad . . 


12.14 


.53 


.06 


.43 


9.72 


.06 


.78 


South Africa 


13.00 


.54 


.09 


.68 


10.73 


.07 


.81 


Honolulu . . 


12.20 


.56 


.07 


.50 


10.29 


.05 


.66 


Barbados 


11.72 


.48 


.06 


.46 


8.05 


.06 


.76 


Panama . . 


14.41 


.90 


.14 


.50 


11.12 


.25 


1.09 



The sugar found in the papaya is principally invert sugar, 
only traces of sucrose being present. 

Cultivation. 

The papaya is tropical in its requirements, but it can be 
grown in regions where light frosts are experienced. It prefers 
a warm climate and rich, loamy, well-drained soil. In southern 
Florida it grows best on hammock soils, but it is successful on 
"high pine" lands if properly fertilized. On the Florida Keys 
the plant has become thoroughly naturalized and springs up 
wherever a clearing is made, the seeds being scattered by birds 
and other agencies. While commercial papaya-culture prob- 
ably should not be attempted north of Palm Beach, good fruits 
are occasionally produced in the central part of the state when 
a mild winter allows the plants to reach fruiting age without 
injury. 

In California the cool nights do not permit the fruit to mature 




^ 



eg 
=+-1 

o 

I 



i 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 231 

perfectly. It has been observed in the tropics that papayas 
ripened in cool weather are insipid or squash-like in flavor. 
The best situations in southern California are the protected foot- 
hill regions, where the heat during the summer months is more 
intense than on the seacoast. An old tree at Hollywood, near 
Los Angeles, bore fruit several years, but finally succumbed 
to the cold rains of winter which cause the plants to rot off at 
the base, especially if the drainage is in the least defective. 

Higgins and Holt, whose bulletin "The Papaya in Hawaii" ^ 
is the most valuable contribution yet made to the literature of 
papaya-growing, have the following to say concerning climate 
and soil : 

"In regard to rainfall and moisture requirements, the plant is able 
to adapt itself to a wide range of conditions, and when established 
suffers much less from a shortage of water than the orange or the 
avocado, but makes beneficial use of a large amount if supplied. Yet, 
withal, it is one of the most insistent plants in the matter of drainage. 
In waterlogged soils the papaya makes a spindling growth and drops its 
lower leaves prematurely, while the remaining foliage becomes yellow, 
the whole plant indicating an unhealthy condition. 

"There are few, if any, soils in which the papaya will not grow if 
aeration and drainage are adequately supplied. Most of the plantings 
at this station are upon soils regarded as unsuitable for other fruit 
trees and upon which the avocado is a failure. . . . They are very 
porous, permitting perfect drainage and aeration. Rich soils give cor- 
respondingly better and more permanent results if they permit of the 
free passage of water and entrance of air." 

For a permanent orchard, the plants should be set not less 
than 10 feet apart. The papaya is short-lived, and will not 
usually remain in profitable bearing more than three to five 
years. That it is extremely simple of culture is proved by the 
ease with which it becomes naturalized in tropical regions, 
and by the thriftiness of the wild plants which spring up every- 
where along the roadsides. 

1 No. 32 of the Hawaii Exp. Sta. 



232 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

P. J. Wester writes as follows regarding the planting and care 
of papayas : 

"When the plants have attained a height of about 3 to 4 inches, 
they are ready to be transplanted to the place where they are intended 
to grow. 

"Unless the transplanting has been preceded by a good rain, the 
plants should be thoroughly watered before they are removed from the 
seed-bed. In order to reduce the evaporation of water from the plants 
until they are well established in their new quarters, about three- 
fourths of the leafblades should be trimmed off. 

"In transplanting, take up the plants with so large a ball of earth 
that as few roots are cut or disturbed as possible. Do not set out 
the young plant deeper in the new place than it grew in the nursery ; 
firm the soil well around the roots, making a slight depression around 
the plant, and water it thoroughly. 

" In order to protect the tender plant from the sun until it is estab- 
lished, it is well to place around it a few leafy twigs at the time of 
planting. It is weU to set out three plants to each hill, and as the 
plants grow up and fruit, to dig out the males or the two poorest 
fruiting plants. 

"If the plants cannot be set out in the field at the time indicated, 
transplant them from the seed-bed to a niu-sery, setting out the plants 
about 8 to 12 inches apart in rows a yard apart, or more, to suit the 
convenience of the planter. While the best plan is to set out the plants 
in the field before they are more than 12 inches tall, the plants may be 
transplanted to the field from the nursery with safety after they are 
more than 5 feet high, provided that all except young and tender leaf- 
blades are removed, leaving the entire petiole, or leafstalk, attached 
to the plant ; if the petiole be cut close to the main stem, decay 
rapidly enters it. If the entire petiole is left it withers and drops and 
a good leaf scar has formed before the fungi have had time to work 
their way from the petiole into the stem of the plant. 

"When a plant has grown so tall that it is difficult to gather the 
fruit, which also at this time grows small, cut off the trunk about 
30 inches above the ground. A number of buds will then sprout from 
the stump, and will form several trunks that will bear fruit like the 
mother-plant in a short time. These sprouts, except two or three, 
should be cut off, for if all are permitted to grow the fruit produced 
will be small." 

When first set out in the field, the young plants should be 
watered every day or two ; after a few weeks have elapsed and 
they have become established, waterings may be less frequent. 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 233 

Mature plants should be irrigated liberally unless rainfall is 
abundant. Since they are gross feeders, stable manure or 
commercial fertilizers should be supplied liberally. This is 
particularly true of plants which are grown on the sandy lands of 
southeastern Florida. Organic nitrogen is especially desirable. 

Propagation. 

The papaya is usually propagated by seeds, which in Florida 
should be sown as early in the year as possible, preferably in 
January, in order to have the plants in bearing by the follow- 
ing winter. If seeds are washed and dried after removal from 
the fruit, and stored in glass bottles, they will retain their 
viability for several years. Higgins and Holt say : 

"It is best to plant the seeds in a well-drained, porous soil 
in flats or boxes, covering them about half an inch deep. In 
from two to six weeks the seedlings should appear, germina- 
tion being hastened by heat. In the open in cool weather the 
time will not be less than a month, but in a warm greenhouse 
it may be shortened to two weeks. In about a month after 
germination the seedlings should be large enough to be trans- 
ferred to pots, in which they should remain for another month 
before being placed in the orchard or garden." 

Wester advocates planting in seed-beds and transferring 
the young seedlings directly into the open ground. He writes : 

"The seed-bed should be prepared by thoroughly pulverizing 
the soil by spading or hoeing the ground well, and the clearing 
away of all weeds and trash. Sow the seed thinly, about 1 to 
2 centimeters apart, and cover the seed not more than 1 centi- 
meter with soil, then water the bed thoroughly. In the dry 
season it is well to make the seed-bed where it is shaded from 
the hot midday rays of the sun, under a tree ; or it may be 
shaded by the erection of a small bamboo frame on the top of 
which is placed grass or palm leaves. If the seed is planted 
during the rainy season a shed of palm leaves should always 



234 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

be put up over the seed-bed to protect the seed from being 
washed out and the plants from being beaten down by the 
heavy rains." 

Vegetative propagation of the papaya by two means has been 
shown to be possible, but it is not yet demonstrated that either 
of these methods produces satisfactory plants. Cuttings are 
readily grown, but they develop more slowly than seedlings. 
Grafted plants are more rapid in growth and come into fruit 
early, and it was thought at one time that this method offered 
great possibilities ; but later experience has shown that when 
propagated by this means in Florida, a given variety degen- 
erates rapidly, and in the third or fourth generation from the 
parent seedling the grafted plants make very little growth and 
their fruits are small and practically worthless. The explana- 
tion of this behavior has not been found, nor is it known whether 
it will occur in other regions ; but its effect in Florida has been 
to do away with grafting and cause all growers to return to 
seed-propagation. 

In order that those who are interested in the subject may 
experiment for themselves, a brief extract is given here from 
"The Grafted Papaya as an Annual Fruit Tree," by Fairchild 
and Simmonds.^ These investigators found that seeds of 
the papaya, when planted in the greenhouse in February, 
produce young seedlings large enough to graft some time in 
March ; that these grafted trees, which can be grown in pots, 
when set out in the open ground in May or the latter part of 
April, make an astonishing growth and come into bearing (in 
Florida) in November or December ; that they continue bear- 
ing throughout the following spring and summer, and if it is 
advisable, can be left to bear fruit into the following autumn. 

"After a seedling begins to fruit, it does not normally produce side- 
shoots which can be used for grafting. It has been observed for 
some time, however, that if the top of a bearing tree is cut or broken 

1 Circ. 119, Bur. Plant Industry. 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 235 

off aecidentally, a large number of shoots begin to form, one from the 
upper part of each leaf scar ; that is, the axil of the leaf. This takes 
place three or four weeks after the tree is decapitated. It is these 
small shoots, of which as many as 50 or more may be produced by a 
single tree, that are used in grafting the papaya. One of these shoots 
is taken when a few inches long and about the diameter of a lead pencil, 
is sharpened to a wedge point, the leaf surface reduced, and inserted 
in a cleft in a young seedling papaya plant which has been decapi- 
tated when 6 to 10 inches high and split with an unusually sharp, thin 
grafting knife. At this age the trunk of the young seedling has not 
yet formed the hollow space in the center. It is not necessary for the 
stock and the cion to be of equal size ; the cion should not, however, 
be larger than the stock. After inserting the cion, the stock is tied 
firmly, but not tightly, with a short piece of soft twine. The grafted 
plant should be shaded for a few days after the grafting has been done 
and the twine should be removed on the sixth or seventh day. The 
best success has been secured in these experiments by grafting potted 
seedlings in the greenhouse, or under the shade of a lath-house, pre- 
sumably because the stock can be kept in good growing condition 
under these circumstances." 

One of the most remarkable features of the papaya is the 
irregularity which it presents in the distribution of the sexes. 
Normally it is dioecious, with staminate and pistillate (male 
and female) flowers produced on different plants. Cross- 
pollination is necessary to enable the pistillate flowers to de- 
velop fruits. This is effected by insects. Among seedling 
plants the number of staminates is usually greater than that of 
pistillates. Only a few of the former being necessary as pol- 
linizers (certainly not more than one in ten), this excess of 
staminates is, from the grower's standpoint, an objectionable 
feature. 

In addition to the staminate and pistillate forms, many 
intermediates have been observed in which both sexes are com- 
bined in one plant. Staminate flowers may occur with rudi- 
mentary stigmas and ovaries which give rise to small worth- 
less fruits ; and there is a hermaphrodite type which regularly 
produces perfect flowers, is self-pollinated, and yields excellent 
fruits. Numerous other forms have been described (see the 



236 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

bulletin by Higgins and Holt), but the importance of these is 
lessened by the fact that during the lifetime of a plant it may 
change from one form to another. 

In general, it may be said that plants which develop from 
the seed as pure pistillates will retain their sex without modi- 
fication, but plants which commence life as pure staminates may 
undergo a change of sex. It has been asserted that a change 
of sex may be induced by topping the male tree or breaking its 
roots. M. J. lorns, who studied this question in Porto Rico, 
reached the conclusion that other conditions than the loss of 
the terminal bud must be present to induce a change of sex, 
and he suggested that the trees may pass through definitely 
recurring cycles of development, and be subject to the change 
only at certain periods. L. B. Kulkarni,^ who investigated 
the matter in India, came to the belief that change of sex is 
not in any way connected with the removal of the terminal 
bud. He found that male plants, in the course of their develop- 
ment, may present a number of different sex-combinations, as 
follows : 

First stage : Staminate flowers only. 
Second : Staminate, with a few hermaphrodite flowers. 
Third : A few staminate, with many hermaphrodite flowers. 
Fourth : A few staminate, with many hermaphrodite, and a few 
pistillate flowers. 

Fifth : Hermaphrodite flowers only. 
Sixth : Hermaphrodite, with a few pistillate flowers. 
Seventh : A few hermaphrodite, with many pistDlate flowers. 
Eighth : Pistillate flowers only. 

Thus the plant in the course of its life history may change from 
a staminate to a hermaphrodite and then to a pure pistillate. 

At the Hawaii Experiment Station, much attention has been 
devoted to breeding papayas. Some of the objects in view 
have been hermaphroditism (in order to eliminate the necessity 

^ Poena Agrl. CoUege Magazine, 1, 1915. 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 237 

of male trees to act as pollinizers), fruit of suitable size and 
shape for market purposes, uniformity in ripening, good keep- 
ing qualities, and good color and flavor of flesh. The dioecious 
type has not been satisfactory in breeding, principally because 
the staminates do not show the characters which are inherent 
in them and which will appear in the fruits of their progeny. 
"The hope, therefore," says J. E. Higgins,^ "must lie in the use 
of a hermaphrodite type. Here it is possible to select an in- 
dividual of known qualities. This may be used as the sole 
parent stock or may be combined with another parent of 
known qualities. What mixtures there may be in the individ- 
ual at the start may not be known ; but through repeated selec- 
tions and elimination of undesirable characters, it should be 
possible to produce a reasonably pure strain, provided, of 
course, that the stock is kept pure by constantly avoiding 
cross-pollination with plants of different characters." 

Some excellent hermaphrodite forms have already been pro- 
duced, and, although they do not breed true, a sufficient number 
of the seedlings are hermaphrodites and produce fruit of good 
quality for it to be felt that a definite advance has been made. 
Breeding work should be continued until a strain has been puri- 
fied to a point that it will breed true and retain its fruit charac- 
teristics as closely as do cultivated varieties of eggplant, tomato, 
and other vegetables. 

Yield and market. 

In the tropics papayas are in season during a large part of the 
year and the yield is enormous, a single plant bearing in the 
course of its life (not more than a few years) a hundred or 
more immense fruits. In Florida the season extends from 
December to June, with a few fruits ripening at other times. 
Higgins and Holt say : " The first ripe fruits may be expected 
(in Hawaii) in about a year from the time when the plants are 
1 Journal of Heredity, May, 1916. 



238 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

set in the orchard or garden, and thereafter fruits and flowers in 
all stages of development may be in evidence at all times of 
the year. In the cool season the fruits are slow in ripening, 
thus causing a short crop and high prices for a month or two." 

Sometimes the fruits are produced in such abundance that it 
is necessary to thin them in order to avoid their remaining 
small in size or becoming malformed by the pressure of neigh- 
boring fruits. Thinning should be done when the fruits are 
rather small. 

If the fruits are to be sent to market they should be picked 
as soon as the surface begins to turn yellow. " Certain varieties 
become ripe enough for serving while showing little yellow 
coloring." It is difficult to ship the fully ripe fruit, since it is 
large, heavy, and has no firm outer covering, but only a thin 
membranous skin, to protect it. For this reason papayas 
must be shipped before they are fully ripe, and even then great 
care is necessary. Shipments have been made from Hawaii to 
San Francisco in cold storage with good results. When shipped 
from southern Florida to New York by express, the percentage 
of loss is usually large, unless the fruit is picked while still 
green; and in the latter case it does not ripen properly after 
reaching the market. It is advised to encase the fruits in 
cylinders of corrugated strawboard, and pack them in single- 
tier cases holding four to six fruits. 

Pests and diseases. 

Two pests have become sufficiently troublesome in south 
Florida to require attention. One, the papaya fruit-fly {Toxo- 
trypana curvicauda Gerst.) threatened at one time to become 
serious. This insect occurs in several parts of tropical America. 
The female inserts her eggs into the immature papaya by means 
of a long ovipositor, and the larvse first feed in the central seed- 
mass, but later work into the flesh of the fruit, frequently 
rendering it unfit for human consumption. The only means 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 239 

of control which have been suggested are the destruction of 
wild plants and infested fruits, and the production of varieties 
having very thick flesh, so that the ovipositor will not reach to 
the seed-cavity (the young larvae are unable to live in the 
flesh). A fungous disease known as papaya leaf-spot (Pucci- 
niopsis cariccB Earle) frequently attacks the foliage in the win- 
ter season, forming small black masses on the under-surfaces 
of the leaves. It is not very destructive and is easily con- 
trolled by spraying with bordeaux mixture. 

In Hawaii a red mite (Tetranychus sp.) sometimes occurs in 
scattered colonies on the lower surfaces of the leaves and on 
the fruits. The larvae of a moth (Cryptohlades aliena Swezey) 
feeds under a web on the floral stems and beneath the flower- 
clusters. Neither of these pests is said to be serious. The 
Mediterranean fruit-fly {Cer otitis capitata Wied.) attacks the 
fruit; its presence in Hawaii has made necessary a quaran- 
tine order prohibiting the shipment of papayas from that 
territory to the mainland of the United States. Two scale 
insects, Aspidiotus destructor Sign, and Pseudoparlatoria 
ostriata Ckll., are reported on the plant in Africa and Cuba 
respectively. 

Seedling races. 

With the introduction of grafting as a means of propagating 
choice papayas in Florida, one named variety, the Simmonds, 
was established, but the stock has degenerated and it is no 
longer grown. Grafted plants of the third and fourth gene- 
ration from the original seedling developed to a height of 3 or 
4 feet only, produced a few small fruits, and were always 
yellowish and sickly in appearance. 

There are marked differences in the size, shape, and quality 
of the fruits produced by different seedlings, and the papayas 
of certain regions in the tropics are uniformly superior to those 
of other regions. In Bahia, Brazil, there are two distinct 



240 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

types, one with small nearly spherical fruits not over 6 inches 
in diameter, and a very superior type called mamao da India 
which produces fruits 18 inches long, cylindrical in form, and 
of excellent flavor. The hermaphrodite seedlings produce 
some of the sweetest fruits, and they usually have thick flesh. 
Some papayas are very sweet, while others are insipid. The 
production of seedling races which will produce fruits of good 
quality and breed fairly true is much to be desired. 

The Mountain Papaya 
(Carica candamarcensis, Hook, f .) 

Since it comes from elevations of 8000 or 9000 feet in the 
mountains of Colombia and Ecuador, this species is more frost- 
resistant than its near relative the papaya, and in this charac- 
teristic lies its greatest interest. It has been suggested that 
hybridization of the two species might result in a plant which 
would be sufficiently hardy for regions like southern California 
and the shores of the Mediterranean, and yet would produce 
fruit nearly as good as that of the papaya. Such a hybrid 
has not yet been produced. 

The mountain papaya resembles its more tropical relative 
in habit and general appearance, but it is smaller in all its 
parts; it grows only 8 or 10 feet high, its leaves are smaller 
(and deeply lobed), and its fruits are only 3 or 4 inches in length. 
H. F. Macmillan says: "The tree has been introduced at 
Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, in 1880, and is now commonly grown 
in hill gardens for the sake of its fruit, being often found in 
a semi-naturalized state about up-country bungalows." A. 
Robertson-Proschowsky of Nice, France, writes, in the Petite 
Revue Agricole et Horticole : " It is a handsome plant, grow- 
ing a few meters high, and often without branches, though the 
latter are developed when the top is killed by frost. For 
several years I have grown this species and I find it to pro- 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 241 

duce good fruits, of a sweetish, acidulous, perfumed taste. 
They are suitable, as I have had occasion to learn from experi- 
ence, for persons with weak stomachs, who cannot eat other 
fruits. They are particularly good for dyspeptics." Mac- 
millan notes that the fruit, which ripens in Ceylon throughout 
the year, is too acid to be used for dessert, but is very agree- 
able when stewed and can be made into jam and preserves. 

The requirements of the plant are much the same as those 
of the papaya, except in regard to climate. It withstands 28° 
above zero without serious injury. The seeds are sown in the 
same manner as those of the papaya. 

There are other species of Carica in tropical America, many 
of them as yet little known, which may be of value in connec- 
tion with papaya breeding. C. quercifolia, Benth. and Hook., 
with leaves like those of the English oak, is even hardier than 
the mountain papaya, but its fruit, the size of a date, is worth- 
less. There appear to be in Ecuador several species closely 
resembling' C. candamarcensis, but some of them may be nothing 
more than varieties of the latter. 

The Purple Granadilla (Plate X) 

{Passifiora edulis, Sims) 

The passifloras are known in the Temperate Zone as flower- 
ing plants, but the species commonly grown in the tropics are 
cultivated principally for their edible fruits. The most im- 
portant one is the purple granadilla, P. edulis, known in Aus- 
tralia, where its culture is extensive, as passion-fruit. 

The plant is a strong-growing, somewhat woody climber, 
with deeply three-lobed, serrate leaves. The flower, which is 
white and purple, is attractive but not so handsome as that 
of some other members of the genus. The fruit is oval, 
2 to 3 inches long, deep purple in color when fully ripe. Within 
the brittle outer shell are numerous small seeds, each surrounded 



242 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

by yellowish, aromatic, juicy pulp, the flavor of which is rather 
acid. 

From its native home in Brazil the purple granadilla has been 
carried to all parts of the world. It attains its greatest impor- 
tance as an economic plant in Australia, but it is grown also in 
Ceylon, the Mediterranean region, in the southern United States, 
and elsewhere. The fruit is used for flavoring sherbets, for 
confectionery, for icing cakes, for "trifles," — a dish composed 
of sponge-cake, fruits, cream, and white of egg, — and for 
other table purposes. The pulp is also eaten directly from the 
fruit, after adding a little sugar, or it may be used to prepare a 
refreshing drink by beating it up in a glass of ice-water and 
adding a pinch of bicarbonate of soda. 

The term passion-fruit, which is often applied to this species, 
confuses it with other members of the same genus, many of 
which are known by the same common name. In order to 
distinguish between these different species, it is well to adopt 
a different name for each. P. edulis is called lilikoi in Hawaii. 

In California this fruit is easily grown, but it has not yet 
reached a position of importance in the markets; indeed, 
it is rarely seen in them, — a condition which contrasts strik- 
ingly with its prominence in Australia. It withstands light 
frosts, but when young is injured by temperatures more than 
one or two degrees below the freezing-point. While it bears 
abundantly in California, plants grown in Florida have in some 
instances failed to produce fruits. The reason for this is not 
definitely known, but it may be due to defective pollination. 
The pollination of this and other edible-fruited passifloras 
deserves investigation, for it is probable that the secret of many 
failures in their cultivation lies in this d^ail. Paul Knuth, 
in his "Handbook of Flower Pollination," states that the passi- 
floras are protandrous (the anthers shedding their pollen before 
the stigmas are in condition to receive it) and adapted to cross- 
pollination by humble-bees and humming-birds. In describ- 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 243 

ing the pollination of P. ccorulea he says : " In the first stage 
of anthesis, a large insect (such as a humble-bee) when sucking 
the nectar, receives pollen on its back from the downwardly 
dehiscing anthers. In the second stage the styles have curved 
downwards to such an extent that the now receptive stigmas 
are lower than the empty anthers. It follows that older flowers 
are fertilized by pollen from younger ones." 

The passifloras are easily propagated by seeds or cuttings, 
the latter method being preferable in most cases. Seeds 
should be removed from the fruit, dried in a shady place, and 
planted in flats of light soil. They do not germinate quickly, 
but the young plants are easily raised, and may be set out in 
the open ground when six months to a year old. Cuttings 
should be taken from fairly well-matured shoots, and should 
be about 6 inches in length. They are easily rooted in sand, 
no bottom-heat being required. Cuttings of the purple 
granadilla will often fruit in pots at the age of two years. 

Directions for the commercial cultivation of this fruit, based 
on American experience, cannot be given, since no commercial 
plantings, with the exception of a few small ones on an experi- 
mental scale, have yet been made in this country. The fol- 
lowing extracts are taken from an article by W. J. Allen in the 
Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales for November 2, 1912 : 

"Although this fruit is not grown so extensively as it should be 
throughout the many districts on the coast where it will do weU, it 
nevertheless plays quite an important part in some of the young 
citrus orchards in the County of Cumberland, on the Penang Moun- 
tain, and around the Gosford district, where it is frequently planted 
among the trees. As it begins to bear very early, growers are enabled 
to make considerably more from this crop than pays for the working 
of the orchard until the young trees begin to produce crops of fruit, 
which they invariably do after the third or fourth year. 

"Generally speaking, the vines are most productive before having 
attained to four or five years of age. After that period they begin to 
lose vigor and gradually die out, or cease to be very profitable, and are 
in consequence removed. 



244 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

"The passion- vine is found to thrive well on many classes of soil, 
— some so poor that one is led to wonder how anything could profit- 
ably be grown on it. On the light sandstone and poorer coastal coun- 
try there is no other fruit which will give the same return as this, and 
with proper working and heavy manuring, it is wonderful the amount 
of fruit that can be taken from an acre of such vines. The area planted 
is comparatively small, and, in consequence, the fruit usually commands 
very high prices. As an addition to a fruit salad there is no flavor that 
can surpass it, and v/hen eaten with cream it rivals the most delicious 
of strawberries. If this fruit were known in Great Britain and America, 
I venture to say that there would be an unlimited demand for it, if 
once we were successful in landing it in those countries in large quan- 
tities. 

"In selecting a site for the planting of a vineyard, one of the im- 
portant points to keep in view is to avoid a district or situation where 
frosts are at all severe or of frequent occurrence in the winter. There 
is one thing which this vine will not stand, and that is severe frosts ; 
and the Easter, winter, and spring crops are those which are in most 
demand. During the summer time there is a superabundance of other 
fruits, and hence the consumption of the passion-fruit is not so great ; 
from Easter until Christmas time there is a splendid market for aU 
well grown fruit. It is diu-ing part of this time that we have our cold- 
est weather, and a severe frost or two would destroy the whole crop, 
and in all probability kill the vine back to the root. 

"The chief feature about the passion- vine, however, is its habit of 
producing two crops per annum. The summer crop comes in about 
February or March, and prices are necessarily low. The winter crop 
is ready for pulling when other fruits are not so plentiful on the market. 
The practice of the growers, has, therefore, been to secure a heavy 
winter crop by pruning away the summer crop when about half grown ; 
or generally speaking, about the month of November. This stimu- 
lates the vines to throw out fresh fruiting laterals for the winter. 

"The next point of importance is to put the land in thorough 
order before planting, and in places where it is very sour and deficient 
in lime, which it mostly is on our coastal country where the passion- 
fruit is grown, it would be advantageous to give the land at least half 
a ton of good lime to the acre. 

"The vines should be planted out about August or September, 
when the ground is in good condition. 

"The seed is sown in February. The rows should be 30 inches to 
three feet apart, and the seed every inch or so in the row, afterwards 
thinning out to three inches apart to make good stocky plants. 

"In erecting the trellis, the posts should be six feet and a half long, 
firmly set in the ground to a depth of 18 inches, and placed at distances 
of about 24 feet apart, or at farthest 32 feet in the row. On the tops 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 245 

of these posts are tightly stretched, at a distance of six inches apart, 
two strong No. 8 galvanized iron wires. The rows should run north 
and south, so that they get the sunlight on both sides. The rows are 
placed in the center of the tree-rows, or when alone, 10 feet apart, with 
the vines 12 feet in the row, thus requiring about 362 plants to the 
acre. 

"The young vine is trained with a single stem up the stakes until 
it reaches the wires, when it is allowed to throw out from two to foiu* 
leaders, which are trained to run either way on the wires. As the vine 
puts forth further growth, the main leaders and laterals are trained 
along the wires. 

"Without judicious manuring there are very few districts where 
the growing of this fruit would prove highly satisfactory, while, on 
the other hand, those growers who are giving the most attention to 
this important adjunct are the ones who are making the greatest 
profits out of the industry. It has become a recognized fact that 
liberal dressings of manure must be used from the time of planting 
until the plants cease to be productive. 

"On making inquiry among the different growers, I found that 
scarcely any two of them were using the same mixture. Some, on the 
lighter soUs, were using considerable quantities of blood and bone with 
a little potash ; others were using bone, superphosphate, and potash ; 
while others were using a mixture of nitrate of soda, dried blood, and 
superphosphate and sulphate of potash, etc., etc.; and judging from 
the appearance of the different vines, all with very gratifying results. 

"When the fruit begins to ripen it should be picked at least twice a 
week. It will keep well in a cool dry place, but I would recommend 
marketing every week. 

"All badly formed and inferior fruit is discarded, and the better 
fruit is mostly packed in layers, so that when opened at the markets 
it presents a good appearance. In grading, color as well as size is 
taken into consideration, any badly colored fruits being sorted out 
and packed separately." 



The Sweet Geanadilla (Fig. 30) 

{Passiflora ligularis, A. Juss.) 

Next in importance to the purple granadilla or passion- 
fruit comes the sweet granadilla, a species extensively used by 
the inhabitants of the mountainous parts of Mexico and Cen- 
tral America. In flavor it is perhaps the best of the genus, and 
it certainly merits a wider distribution than it enjoys at present. 



246 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



Henry Pittier speaks of this fruit as "neither a food nor a 
beverage." Its white pulp is almost liquid, acidulous, and 
perfumed in taste. Among the Indians of Central America 
it is a favorite, and figures prominently in many of the markets. 
The plant is a vigorous climber, scrambling over build- 
ings and trees of considerable size. The leaves are cordate and 
acuminate, and commonly about 6 inches long. The flowers 
are solitary, with the petals and sepals greenish, and the corona 
white with zones of red-purple. The 
fruit is somewhat larger than that of 
P. edulis, oval or slightly elliptic in 
form, and orange to orange-brown, 
sometimes purplish, in color. The shell 
is strong, so that the fruit can be trans- 
ported long distances without injury. 
The seeds are numerous and each sur- 
rounded by translucent whitish pulp. 
The Indians eat the fruit out of hand. 
The species is a native of tropical 
America and does not seem to be known 
in other regions. Recently it has been 
introduced into California and Florida 
by the United States Department of 
Agriculture, but so far as is known, it 
has not yet fruited in either state. Since it grows in Central 
America at elevations of 6000 to 7000 feet, it should be suffi- 
ciently cold-resistant to withstand light frosts, although it is 
doubtful whether it will survive temperatures more than two 
or three degrees below freezing-point. 

Its requirements in regard to soil and cultural attention 
are probably about the same as those of P. edulis. It does 
not fruit quite so abundantly as the latter, nor has it been 
observed to produce more than one crop a year in Central 
America. Propagation is usually by seed. 




Fig. 30. The sweet 
granadilla {Passiflora lig- 
ularis), one of the best- 
flavored fruits of its genus. 
(X|) 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 



247 



The Giant Granadilla (Fig. 31) 
{Passiflora quadrangularis, !>.) 

While this is the largest-fruited species of the genus, and 
one of the most widely distributed, it is not the best in quality. 
From its native home in tropical America it has been carried 
to the eastern tropics, where it is now grown in many places. 
It is common in the West Indies, 
but nowhere is it cultivated on a 
commercial scale. 

The plant is somewhat coarse 
and is a strong climber. The 
stems are four-angled, as indi- 
cated by the specific name, and 
the leaves are ovate or round- 
ovate, cordate at the base and 
mucronate at the apex, entire, 
and 6 or 8 inches long. The 
flowers, which are about 3 inches 
in diameter, are white and pur- 
ple in color. The fruits are ob- 
long, up to 10 inches in length. 
H. F. Macmillan says: "Its 
large, oblong, greenish-yellow 
fruit is not unlike a short and 
thick vegetable-marrow, and con- 
tains in its hollow center a mass of purple, sweet-acid pulp 
mixed with flat seeds." A horticultural form exists which has 
leaves variegated with yellow. 

This species is more tropical in its requirements than P. 
ligularis and P. edulis. It will grow in southern Florida, 
but is not successful in California. A. Robertson-Proschowsky 
reports, however, that it has fruited on the French Riviera 




Fig. 31. The giant granadilla 
{Passiflora quadrangularis) . (X f) 



248 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

at Golfe-Juan and perhaps elsewhere, and in his own garden 
at Nice was only killed after surviving several winters. 

The fruit is known in French as barbadine, in Portuguese as 
maracujd melao, and in Spanish as granadilla or granadilla 
real. The name granadilla is applied, in different parts of the 
tropics, to several species of Passiflora, and in order to dis- 
tinguish them it is necessary to append a qualifying word. It 
is derived from granada, and means "small pomegranate." 

Macmillan recommends that the shoots be well cut back 
after the fruiting season is past. It is commonly believed 
necessary to resort to hand-pollination to insure the produc- 
tion of fruit, but this is not always the case. The protandrous 
character of the passifloras, and the necessity of cross-pollina- 
tion, are mentioned in the discussion of the purple granadilla ; 
that it is sometimes possible, however, for fruits to be produced 
by self-fertilization, has been shown by experience. Paul 
Knuth, after describing the character of the passiflora flower, 
says: "Autogamy (self-pollination) would seem to be et- 
cluded under such circumstances, yet it is possible that the 
stigmas and the anthers may be brought into contact when the 
flower closes at the end of the single day's anthesis. This is 
the more probable as Warnstorf saw a fully formed fruit in a 
greenhouse. Here, then, is a case in which an obviously 
chasmogamous flower (one in which the perianth opens) is 
only self-pollinated after it has closed." If P. quadrangularis 
is self-sterile, however, it would do no good to have the flowers 
self-pollinated. If insects are lacking to do the work, cross- 
pollination must be effected by hand. 

Propagation is by seed or by cuttings, which should be 10 to 
12 inches long and from well-matured stems, and should be 
inserted in sand. 

Several other species of Passiflora are cultivated in the tropics 
for their fruit. P. laurifolia, known as yellow granadilla, water- 
lemon, Jamaica honeysuckle, sweet-cup, bell-apple, and pomme 



THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 249 

d'or, is cultivated in the West Indies, and to a limited extent 
in other regions. H. F. Maemillan states that it is not fruit- 
ful in the eastern tropics, P. maliformis, L. is grown in the 
West Indies, and in the mountains of Colombia, where it is 
called curuba or kuruba. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 

Herein are grouped the few fruits of the Rose family that 
are cultivated to any extent in the tropics and sub tropics. 
In temperate regions, this family supplies the leading tree- 
fruits, as apple, pear, quince, stone-fruits, and also such small- 
fruits as raspberry, dewberry, blackberry, and strawberry. 

The Loquat (Plate XII) 
(Eriohotrya japonica, Lindl.) 

The production of loquats in Japan is estimated at twenty 
million pounds annually. From one small village in the Che- 
kiang Province of China, twenty thousand dollars' worth have 
been shipped in a single year. In the Occident this excellent 
fruit has not attained the commercial prominence which it 
deserves, nor has it been improved through cultivation and 
selection to any such extent as have many other Asiatic fruits 
now grown in Europe and America. 

To northern residents and travelers in tropical and sub- 
tropical countries, the loquat should possess an especial attrac- 
tion, inasmuch as it recalls in flavor and character the fruits 
of the North. As a matter of fact, it is a close relative of the 
apple and the pear, while its flavor distinctly suggests the 
cherry. Those whose palates have been educated to demand the 
subacid sprightly flavored fruits of the Temperate Zone often 
criticize tropical fruits as being too sweet and rich. The loquat 
is not open to this objection, and it can be grown throughout 

250 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 251 

the tropics wherever there are elevations of a few thousand 
feet. 

To reach its greatest perfection, the loquat requires particular 
climatic conditions. Quite satisfactory results are obtained 
with it, however, in situations where the plant cannot realize 
its best possibilities. The tree is simple of culture, and has 
become widely distributed throughout the tropics and sub- 
tropics. 

Not until rather recently has it been planted in regions where 
systematic attention is given to the improvement of fruits; 
hence its development to meet the ideals of European and 
American pomologists, while accomplished in part, is still far 
from complete. The progress made during the last twenty 
years is highly encouraging, and several varieties now available 
are sufficiently good to merit extensive cultivation. 

Because of its ornamental appearance alone, the loquat is 
often planted in parks and gardens. It is a small tree, rarely 
more than 30 feet high and commonly not exceeding 20 or 25 
feet. It has a short trunk, usually branching two or three feet 
from the ground to form a crown round or oval in form, and 
normally compact and dense. The leaves, which are somewhat 
crowded towards the ends of the stout woolly branchlets, are 
elliptic-lanceolate to obovate-lanceolate in outline, 6 to 10 
inches long, remotely toothed, deep green in color, and woolly 
below. The fragrant white flowers are ^ inch broad and are 
borne in terminal woolly panicles 4 to 8 inches long. The calyx 
is composed of five small, imbricate, acute teeth; the corolla 
has five oblong-ovate clawed petals, white in color and delicate 
in texture. The stamens are twenty, the pistils five, joined 
toward the base. The fruits, which are borne in loose clusters, 
are commonly round, oval, or pyriform, 1 to 3 inches in length, 
pale yellow to orange in color, and somewhat downy on the 
surface. The skin is about as thick as that of a peach, but 
slightly tougher; the flesh firm and meaty in some varieties, 



252 MANUAL OF TROPIC AI^ AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

melting in others, ranging from almost white to deep orange in 
color, juicy, and of a sprightly, subacid flavor. The seeds may 
be as many as ten, since there are five cells in the ovary and two 
ovules in each cell ; but usually several of the ovules are aborted, 
and not more than three to five seeds develop. They are ovate 
in form, flattened on the sides, light brown in color, and about 
f of an inch long. Sometimes fruits with only one seed are found, 
and varieties constantly one-seeded have been reported. 

Although formerly considered indigenous to Japan and China, 
it is now believed that the loquat was originally limited to the 
latter country. The late Frank N. Meyer considered the species 
to be "in all probability indigenous to the hills of the mild- 
wintered, moist regions of central-eastern China." He found it 
in a semi-wild state near Tangsi, in Chekiang Province, a region 
in which loquats are extensively cultivated for market. The 
Chinese graft superior varieties on seedling stocks, but according 
to Meyer ^ they are not very skillful in this work. Their finest 
variety is said to be the pai bibaw or white loquat. 

The loquat has been cultivated in Japan since antiquity, and 
is at present one of the important fruits of that country. It is 
grown in the same regions as the citrus fruits, or even farther 
north than the latter. T. Ikeda ^ points out that localities 
noted for unusually fine loquats always lie close to the sea. 
Numerous varieties have originated in Japan, the best of which 
have been introduced into the United States and a few other 
countries. While there are commercial orchards in many 
places, the total number of trees growing in Japan is said to be 
less than one million; hence it would seem that the industry 
there should be capable of extension, for the fruit is popular 
and the territory adapted to its production is large. 

In northern India the loquat is a fruit-tree of considerable 
importance. A. C. Hartless, superintendent of the Government 

1 Bull. 204, Bur. Plant Industry. 

2 Fruit Culture in Japan. 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 253 

Botanical Gardens at Saharanpur, observes that certain 
localities have been much more favorable than others, and that 
the best results are obtained where the soil is sandy loam and 
where abundant water is supplied : and reports that " In the 
plains the loquat is in season in April, but in the colder climate 
of the hills it fruits in the autumn." Most of the trees in 
India are seedlings, but several grafted varieties have been 
distributed from Saharanpur. 

Throughout a large part of the Mediterranean region the 
loquat is highly successful ; it is said, in fact, to have become 
naturalized in several places. In southern France it is a common 
tree, but there are no large commercial plantations. In Italy 
and Sicily it is abundant. David Fairchild states it to be one of 
the principal fruits of the island of Malta, but the trees are 
seedlings and practically none of them worth propagating. L. 
Trabut says of the loquat in Algeria : " The Horticultural 
Society, the Botanical Service, and a certain number of amateurs 
have collaborated in producing superior varieties which are 
now propagated by grafting. The Botanical Service has 
introduced the best varieties obtainable in Japan, and public 
opinion is undergoing a change regarding this fruit. For- 
merly it was not esteemed." The tree is common in the gardens 
of Algiers, and during early spring the fruit is abundant in 
the markets. 

Regarding its behavior in England, the Gardener's Chronicle 
(May 3, 1913), referring to it under an alternative name, says : 
"The Japanese Medlar is an old garden favorite, grown in this 
country for its handsome evergreen foliage, and in warmer 
regions for the sake of its edible fruits. Messrs. Sander have 
obtained from some source a variegated sport of it, which is 
likely to become a popular garden plant, the variegation being 
particularly pleasing, some of the leaves being more milk- 
white than green. It is not generally known that the Japanese 
Medlar is quite happy when grown under the shelter of a wall 



254 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

in the neighborhood of London; in other words, it is much 
hardier than is supposed." 

According to Paul Hubert, the loquat is grown in Madagascar 
and in some islands of French Oceania. It is also cultivated in 
Indo-China. In Hawaii it is fairly common as a garden tree. 
In Australia its cultivation is limited to Queensland, but Albert 
H. Benson says that it can be grown in the more southerly 
coast districts, in the foothills of the Coast Range, and on the 
coast tablelands. It is not extensively cultivated in any ofthese 
regions. Grafted varieties are offered by nurserymen in 
Brisbane. 

The loquat has become widely distributed throughout 
America, where its cultivation extends from California and 
Florida to Chile and Argentina. In Mexico, Central America, 
and northern South America, it is grown usually in mountain 
valleys and on plateaux at elevations of 3000 to 7000 feet. In 
those situations it succeeds well, and merits more attention 
than is now given it, especially the introduction of superior 
varieties, propagated by grafting. 

California is probably the most favorable region for loquat 
culture in the United States". There are many areas in the 
southern end of the state which are admirably adapted to the 
production of choice fruit, and the commercial development of 
loquat culture in these localities is slowly but steadily progress- 
ing. Already there are several orchards ten to twenty acres 
in size, and many budded trees of superior varieties have been 
planted in dooryards and home gardens. 

Throughout the Gulf states the tree grows well, but in many 
regions frosts interfere with the production of fruit. Several 
small orchards have been started in Florida, and while these 
have not been altogether successful in most instances, there are 
certain districts in the southern part of the state which seem 
well adapted to its culture. W. J. Ivrome has had signally good 
results with this fruit at Homestead. At Miami it has not done 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 255 

SO well, probably because the soil is too light for it and not 
sufficiently moist. 

While the name loquat is universally recognized among 
English-speaking peoples as the correct one for this fruit, it is 
sometimes called Japanese medlar and Japan-plum. The Span- 
ish name is nispero del Japon, the Italian nespola giapponese ; 
both of these mean Japanese medlar, and have been applied 
because of the resemblance of this fruit to the European medlar, 
Mespilus germanica. The French use this same term, as neflier 
du Japon; they also use the name bibace. Yule and Burnell 
say of the word loquat : " The name is that used in S. China, lu- 
kiih, pronounced at Canton lukwat, and meaning 'rush orange.' 
Elsewhere in China it is called pi-pa." This later suggests 
biwa, which is the common name in Japan. 

The botanical name of the loquat is Eriobotrya japonica, 
Lindl., of which Photinia japonica, Gray, is a synonym. The 
latter name is retained by those who prefer not to separate 
the two genera, for the generic name Photinia is older than 
Eriobotrya. 

Although most commonly eaten as a fresh fruit, the loquat 
can be utilized in several ways. For culinary purposes it is 
nearly as useful as its temperate-zone relative the apple; it 
may be stewed and served as a sauce, or it may be made into 
excellent jelly. Loquat pie, if made from fruit which is not 
fully ripe, can scarcely be distinguished from the renowned 
article made from cherries. The seeds are usually removed 
from the fruit before it is cooked, as otherwise they impart a 
bitter flavor to it. 

The following analyses of two California varieties, made by 
M. E. Jaffa, have been published by I. J. Condit in his bulletin 
"The Loquat" ^ unquestionably the most thorough treatise on 
this fruit which has appeared up to the present : 

1 Bull. 250, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



256 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



Table V. Composition of the Loquat 



Vabiett 


Wateb 


Protein 


Fat 


Sugar 


Fiber 


Ash 




Dextrose 


Sucrose 




Thales 

Champagne . . . 


% 
89.0 
84.0 


% 

0.35 
0.32 


% 

0.06 
0.03 


% 

8.95 
11.96 


% 

0.94 
0.83 


% 

0.30 
0.37 


% 

0.29 
0.36 



Cultivation. 

The climatic requirements of the loquat, except as an orna- 
mental plant, are distinctly subtropical. It is not successful 
in the hot tropical lowlands, nor can it be grown for fruiting 
purposes in regions subject to more than a few degrees of 
frost. Cool weather during part of the year and a rainfall of 
15 to 50 inches (with artificial irrigation where the dry season is 
severe) suit it best. These conditions are found in southern 
Japan, in parts of southern California, along the shores of the 
Mediterranean, and in several other regions. It has been noted 
in Japan that the best loquat situations always lie close to the 
sea ; and in California ' much finer fruit has been produced 
near the coast than in the foothill tracts twenty to thirty miles 
inland. Thus it seems that the mild climate of the seacoast 
is peculiarly favorable to the development of the fruit. 

While mature trees have withstood temperatures as low as 
10° above zero without serious injury, the flowers and young 
fruits may be killed by temperatures only a few degrees below 
freezing ; hence loquats cannot be produced successfully where 
heavy frosts may occur at the time of flowering. Condit notes : 
"Frost coming when the fruit is less than half grown may 
result in killing the seeds only, while the flesh continues to 
develop, so that seedless fruits mature. On the other hand, 
frost may have somewhat the same effect as sunburn, 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 257 

injuring the tissues and causing them to shrink or to develop 
irregularly." 

When grown in regions where the weather during the ripening 
season is extremely hot and dry, the fruit is subject to sun- 
scald or sunburn. The exposed surface withers and turns 
brown, and the product is rendered unfit for market. If, on 
the other hand, the weather is cool and foggy during the ripening 
season, the fruit lacks sweetness and flavor. 

Sandy loam is considered the ideal loquat soil, and it should 
be of good depth. Several other types of soil have proved 
satisfactory; thus, in southern California good orchards have 
been produced on heavy clay of the adobe type, and in Florida 
the shallow rocky soils of the Homestead region on the lower 
east coast have given excellent results. Deep sandy soils, 
when of little fertility, are not suitable. Frank N. Meyer 
points out that the best loquat orchards in China are situated 
on low, rich, moist land. 

In California orchards, loquat trees are planted 12 to 24 
feet apart. When planted on the square system, they should 
not be nearer than 20 feet. Close planting has been practiced 
in Orange County, where the rows are set 24 feet apart 
and the trees 12 feet apart in the row. This is believed to 
result in greater regularity and uniformity of production 
than wider planting. March and April are good months for 
planting in California; late September and October are also 
suitable. In southern Florida the best time is probably in the 
autumn. 

The amount of tillage given the orchard varies in different 
regions. Condit says : " Clean culture may be practiced 
throughout the season, but the growth either of a winter or a 
summer leguminous cover-crop is much more advisable." 
For a winter cover-crop, the natural vegetation which springs 
up in California with the arrival of the rains may be allowed 
to grow until it reaches its maximum development, when it 



258 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

should be cut with a mowing-machine and plowed under after 
the fruit is harvested. Following this the ground should be 
cultivated and a summer cover-crop such as buckwheat or the 
whip-poor-will cowpea should be planted. "Winter cover- 
crops may be planted as early as September, in which case they 
may haye made sufficient growth to be turned under before the 
harvest begins. This is not always possible, especially if an 
early variety of loquat is grown ; in fact, it is a question whether 
it is advisable to plow or work the ground deeply or at all during 
the setting and maturing of the fruit." In Florida and other 
regions different methods of cultivation may be required, but 
the liberal use of green cover-crops seems universally desirable. 

In addition to cover-crops, stable manure is often used to 
enrich the land in California orchards. Bearing loquat trees 
exhaust the fertility of the soil rapidly and it is necessary to 
replenish the supply of plant-food annually if fruit of large 
size is to be expected. Condit observes: "When the average 
California soil begins to fail from heavy production, nitrogen 
is likely to be the first crop limiter ; after nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and after phosphoric acid, potash." Particular care 
should be taken, therefore, to see that the supply of nitrogen 
is sufficient to meet the demands of the tree. C. P. Taft, of 
Orange, California, has found the green cover-crops of great 
value in this connection. E. Pillans, Government Horti- 
culturist at the Cape of Good Hope, says that a yearly appli- 
cation of well-rotted stable manure is amply repaid by larger 
crops and increased size of fruit. The loquat groves of Japan 
are said to be fertilized with litter, weeds from the roadsides, 
and, recently, with commercial fertilizers. Condit advises the 
application of 15 cubic feet of stable manure biennially to each 
bearing tree. 

It is ordinarily considered that the amount of water required 
by loquat trees corresponds closely to that needed by citrus 
fruits. Probably it would be more accurate to say that the 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 259 

loquat is more drought-resistant than any of the citrus fruits, 
but that the best results are obtained when the orchard is 
irrigated as liberally as the citrus orchard. In California there 
is usually abundant rainfall at the time the fruits are approach- 
ing maturity ; in other regions, or in California if the season is 
abnormally dry, it may be desirable to supply water at this 
time, since the fruits only develop to large size when there is 
abundant moisture in the soil. In southern France the tree is 
said not to do well en soils which are over-moist in winter. 

The young tree should be headed 24 to 30 inches above the 
ground, and three to five main branches forced to develop. 
The loquat is a compact grower, and the mature tree requires 
much less pruning than most of the temperate-zone fruits. 
It has been found by C. P. Taft, however, that a certain number 
of branches must be cut out from time to time, in order to limit 
the amount of fruiting wood and to admit light to the center of 
the tree. It must be remembered that the tendency of the 
loquat is to overbear, and for the production of commercially 
valuable fruit this must be checked by pruning and thinning. 
The best time for pruning is soon after the crop has been har- 
vested. 

Propagation. 

In many countries it is still the custom to propagate the 
loquat by seed, but in regions where the commercial cultivation 
of this fruit has received serious attention, this method has 
been replaced by budding and grafting. Seedling loquats 
are no more dependable than seedlings of other tree-fruits. As 
ornamental trees for parks and dodryards they can be rec- 
ommended, but they will not serve when commercially market- 
able fruit is required. 

Choice named varieties are budded or grafted on seedling 
loquat stocks or on the quince. Other plants have been used 
as stock-plants, but have not proved altogether satisfactory. 



260 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

When budded on quince the tree is dwarfed. This stock is 
easy to bud ; and it is believed to produce a tree which bears 
at an early age, while its fibrous root-system readily permits 
of transplanting. In spite of these advantages it is considered 
unsatisfactory in Florida, and in California it is commonly 
held that; the seedling loquat is preferable. To produce stock- 
plants, loquat seeds may be planted singly in four-inch pots; 
they may be sown in flats of light soil and later transplanted ; 
or they may be germinated in moist sand or sawdust and potted 
off as soon as they are 3 or 4 inches high. Potting soil should be 
light and loamy. After the young plants are 8 inches high, 
they may be planted in the field in nursery rows. When the 
stems are about | inch in diameter at the base, the plants are 
ready for budding or grafting. 

In California, budding is best done in October or November. 
Budwood should be of young smooth wood, preferably that 
which has turned brown and lost its pubescence and from which 
the leaves have dropped. Shield-budding is the method used 
(a description of the operation will be found in the chapter on 
the avocado). The buds should be cut at least 1| inches long. 
After inserting them in T-incisions made in the stocks at a 
convenient point not far above the ground, they are tied with 
rafiia, soft cotton string, or waxed tape. Three or four weeks 
later the wraps should be loosened to keep them from cutting 
into the stock, and the eye should be left exposed. The wraps 
should not be finally removed until the bud has made several 
inches' growth. In California the stock-plant is cut off 2 or 
3 inches above the bud in early spring. This usually forces 
the bud to grow, but sometimes it shows a tendency to lie 
dormant, and many adventitious buds develop around the top 
of the stock. These must be removed as fast as they make their 
appearance. 

In Florida it has been found that buds unite readily with 
the stock-plant, but that it is difiicult to force them into growth. 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 261 

For this reason grafting has superseded budding in that state. 
The stocks should be of the same size as for budding, and the 
cion should be of well-matured wood. Cleft-grafting is the 
method commonly employed. 

The young trees should be stake-trained in the nursery, 
and headed 24 to 30 inches above the ground. In a year from 
the time of budding or grafting they should be ready for 
transplanting. 

In California, budded or grafted trees begin to bear the second 
or third year after they are planted in the orchard, but they can- 
not be expected to produce commercial crops until four or five 
years old. According to Condit, a ten-year-old tree should 
produce 200 pounds of fruit. Early in the season, the latter 
part of February and all of March, prices are high. Fancy 
fruit will bring 25 to 35 cents a pound at this time. Later, 
in May and June, the average price drops to 5 cents and 
occasionally lower, but fancy fruit rarely sells for less than 8 
to 10 cents a pound. It is the opinion of experienced loquat- 
growers that the gross returns from an orchard should be $300 
to $500 an acre; more than this has been obtained in some 
instances. The advisability of planting early varieties, in 
order to place the crop on the market while prices are high, is 
emphasized by all growers. If late fruit is to be produced, it 
should be of large-fruited varieties which ship well ; otherwise 
the profits will be small. 

Yield and picking. 

The loquat tree is productive, and a regular bearer. Barring 
crop failures due to severe frosts at flowering time, the trees 
rarely fail to produce well every year. Their tendency is to 
overbear, with the result that the fruits are apt to be undersized. 
It has been profitable to thin the crop, since the increased size 
of the fruits remaining on the tree more than compensates for 
the loss of those removed. The practice of experienced loquat- 



262 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

growers in California is to clip out the ends of the fruit-clusters 
with a pair of thinning-shears : this should be done as soon 
as the young fruits have formed. Where choice varieties are 
grown, and where birds and insects are troublesome, it has been 
profitable, in a small way, to protect the fruit by inclosing each 
cluster in a cloth or paper bag. The Japanese, who practice 
bagging in connection with the production of fancy loquats, 
find that it results in larger fruit and a greater degree of uni- 
formity in ripening. 

The season during which loquats are marketed in California 
extends from the latter part of February to June. A given 
variety may ripen several weeks earlier in one locality than in 
another. In Florida the season is considerably earlier than in 
California. The fruits should be left on the tree until they are 
fully ripe, unless it is desired to use them for jelly or for cooking. 
Unripe the loquat is decidedly acid, whereas the fully ripe fruit 
is sweet and delicious. Clippers such as are used by orange- 
pickers are employed in gathering the fruit. Sometimes whole 
clusters can be picked, and again it may be necessary to clip 
off two or three ripe fruits and leave the remaining ones to 
mature. 

The fruit is sorted and graded by hand. For shipping to 
near-by markets it is packed in thirty-pound wooden boxes 
("lug boxes") without the use of excelsior, straw, or other soft 
material to prevent bruising. For distant markets smaller 
packages and considerable care will be required, since the fruit 
is bruised rather easily. 

Pests and diseases. 

The principal enemies of the loquat in California are pear- 
blight {Bacillus amylovorus Trev.) and loquat-scab (Fusi- 
cladium dendriticum var. eriobotryoe Scalia). Condit says of 
the former : " The pear blight is a serious enemy of the loquat 
at times, blossom blight often being especially abundant on 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 263 

trees during the spring months. Infected twigs should be cut 
off well back of the diseased area and burned, care being taken 
to sterilize the pruning shears in alcohol or formalin after each 
cut so as to reduce the danger of further infection. Occasionally 
entire trees are killed by the blight, which gradually extends 
downward from the branches into the trunk, although in most 
cases the disease does not seem to progress much beyond the 
branches. Some varieties are more susceptible than others. 
For example, the Advance is quite resistant and the trees of the 
Victor, which were very susceptible when young, have in later 
years become more or less immune; the Champagne showed 
considerable blossom blight in the spring of 1914, but to no 
greater extent than young trees of other varieties. The trees 
seem to gain resistance as they grow older." 

In regard to the scab he says : " This is reported to be 
a serious disease of the loquat in Australia. The fruit is 
attacked when half grown by brownish black spots, which soon 
extend, stop its further development, and disfigure its appear- 
ance. The fleshy part of the fruit becomes desiccated and the 
skin seems to cling to the stones. A large proportion of the 
crop may in a short space of time be rendered absolutely un- 
salable. It is also well known in Italy upon the leaves. In 
California the scab is quite common both on nursery and 
bearing trees, attacking both leaves and fruit. . . . Spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture after the blossoms have fallen and the 
fruit is setting should prove an effective remedy." 

In Florida the flowers are sometimes blighted by the an- 
thracnose fungus {CoUetotrichum gloBosporioides Penz.). Bor- 
deaux mixture, prepared according to a 3-3-50 formula, should 
be used to combat this disease. 

E. O. Essig ^ mentions four insects which occasionally attack 
the loquat in California. One of these is the well-known 
codlin-moth (Cydia pomonella L.). Another is the green apple 
^ Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California. 



264 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

aphis (Aphis pomi DeGeer), and the remaining two are scale 
insects, one the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Com- 
stock), and the other the Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes flori- 
densis Comstock). None of these insects is a serious pest at 
present. In other countries the fruit is sometimes attacked 
by the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) and 
the Queensland fruit-fly (Bactrocera tryoni Froggatt). In 
India the anar caterpillar {Virachola isocrates Fabr.) bores in 
the fruit. 

Varieties. 

The regions in which named varieties of the loquat have 
been developed are China, Japan, Queensland, India, Sicily, 
Algeria, and California. 

Little is known of the Chinese varieties. Frank N. Meyer 
observed several in his travels in China, but mentioned specif- 
ically only one, the pai-bibaw, or white loquat. T. Ikeda lists 
forty-six varieties which are cultivated in Japan, but only nine 
of them are important. One of them, Tanaka, has been intro- 
duced into the United States by David Fairchild and into Algeria 
by L. Trabut. Four sorts are listed by the Government 
Botanical Garden at Saharanpur, India, but only one, the 
Golden Yellow, is recommended by A. C. Hartless, Superin- 
tendent of the Garden. The Queensland varieties are not 
extensively planted, and probably are not so good as those of 
California. Out of five or six named forms which have origi- 
nated in Italy (including Sicily), not one has been planted 
extensively. More than fifteen varieties have been described 
from Algeria, but most of them have already been discarded. 
One, named Taza, which Trabut produced by crossing Tanaka 
and one of the best Algerian loquats, is considered meritorious. 

Most of the improved sorts at present cultivated in California 
and Florida have been produced by C. P. Taft of Orange, 
California. Taft has done more than any other man in the 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 265 

United States to improve the loquat. His method of procedure 
has been to grow a large number of seedlings and select the 
most desirable ones. In this way he has established eight 
named varieties, of which Champagne, Advance, Early Red, 
Premier, and Victor are the best. 

Little attention has been devoted to the classification 
of loquat varieties. Takeo Kusano, professor in the Imperial 
College of Agriculture and Forestry at Kagoshima, states that 
the Japanese classify them into two groups, called Chinese 
and Japanese. The Chinese type is large, pyriform, and deep 
orange-colored, while the Japanese is smaller, lighter colored, 
and sometimes slender in form. This classification may corre- 
spond to one suggested in 1908 by L. Trabut of Algiers. Trabut's 
two groups were defined, one as having crisp white flesh and 
the other orange or yellow flesh. 

The Chinese group, so far as is known at present, includes 
only late-ripening varieties. The flesh differs in texture from 
that of loquats belonging to the Japanese group, while the 
flavor is very sweet. Kusano states that Tanaka belongs to 
this class. The variety known in California as Thales, which 
is thought by some to be identical with Tanaka or very close 
to it, appears also to belong to the Chinese list. 

The Japanese group includes the loquats of California origin, 
such as Champagne and Premier. These fruits have not the 
firm meaty flesh of the Chinese group, but are more juicy, 
and also are distinct in flavor. The flesh is whitish or light- 
colored, except in the variety Early Red. 

The varieties described below are the important ones culti- 
vated in the United States at the present time. For others of 
minor value, the reader is referred to Condit's bulletin and to 
the articles by Trabut in the Revue Horticole de I'Algerie. 

Advance. — Shape pyriform ; size large, weight 2| ounces, length 
2| inches, breadth If inches ; base somewhat tapering; apex narrow, 
the basin medium deep, narrow, abrupt, corrugated; the calyx-seg- 



266 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

ments short, converging, the eye closed ; fruit-cluster large, compact ; 
surface downy, deep yellow in color ; skin thick and tough ; flesh 
whitish, translucent, melting and very juicy; flavor subacid, very 
pleasant ; quality good ; seeds commonly 4 or 5, the seed cavity not 
large. Season March to June at Orange, California. 

This variety was originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, California, 
in 1897. It is a productive variety, and the fruit-clusters are large 
and handsome. 

Champagne. — Shape oval to pyrif orm ; size large, weight 2 ounces, 
length 2 1 inches, breadth 1| inches; base tapering, slender; apex 
flattened, rather narrow, the basin shallow, narrow, flaring, and the 
calyx-segments broad, short, the eye small, open ; fruit-cluster large, 
loose ; surface deep yellow in color with a grayish bloom ; skin thick, 
tough, somewhat astringent ; flesh whitish, translucent, melting, and 
very juicy, flavor mildly subacid, sprightly and pleasant ; quality very 
good ; seeds 3 or 4, the seed cavity not large. 
Season late April and May at Orange, Call- . 
fornia. 

Originated by C. P. Taft at Orange, Cali- 
fornia, in 1908. Taft considers it superior 
to his other varieties in flavor. It is preco- 
cious and productive. 
Fig 32 The Premier ^"'^^^ ^^^- ~ Shape oval pyrif orm to ob- 

loquat, of ■California origin ^^^^ pyrif orm ; size medium large, weight 2 
which has been planted ounces, length 2 ^ mches, breadth If mches ; 
commercially. (X i) base tapering slightly ; apex broad, flattened, 

with the basin shallow, narrow, abrupt, the 
calyx-segments short, broad, the eye small and closed ; fruit-cluster 
compact ; surface yellowish orange, tinged with red in the fully ripe 
fruit ; skin thick, tough, acid ; flesh pale orange, translucent, melting 
and very juicy ; flavor very sweet, pleasant ; quality good ; seeds 2 
or 3, the seed cavity not large. Season February to April at Orange, 
California. 

The Early Red loquat was originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, Cali- 
fornia, in 1909. This is the earliest variety known in California. 
It is valuable for commercial cultivation in regions that are free from 
severe frosts. 

Premier (Fig. 32). — Shape oval to oblong-pyriform ; size large, 
weight 2^ ounces, length 2| inches, breadth If inches ; base tapering 
slightly ; apex flattened, the basin shallow, moderately broad, rounded, 
the calyx-segments short, the eye large, nearly open ; surface orange- 
yellow to salmon-orange in color, downy; skdn moderately thick and 
tough ; flesh whitish, translucent, melting and juicy ; flavor subacid, 
pleasant ; quality good ; seeds 4 or 5, the seed cavity not large. Season 
April and May at Orange, California. 




THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 



267 




Originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, California, in 1899. It is a good 
variety for home use, but not a good shipper. 

Tanaka. — Shape commonly obovoid, weight 2 to 3 ounces. L. 
Trabut says of it: "Tanaka is characterized by a beautiful color, 
remarkable size, firm flesh of rich color, agreeable perfume, and little 
acidity. The proportion of flesh to seeds is large. This loquat owes 
to the consistence of its flesh unusual keeping quality, — it can be 
handled without turning black. Left for a 
week it wrinkles and dries but does not rot. 
Among the plants, grafted on quince, which 
were introduced from Japan, two subvari- 
eties can be distinguished ; one with pear- 
shaped fruits, the other subspherical. 
Tanaka is vigorous, the leaf a little narrower 
thaninourloquats. The tree is productive." „ ^q Tli 1 1 
Tanaka is famed as the largest- loquat in late-ripening, large^lnd of'eV 
Japan, and one of the best. It has been ceUent quality. (X about |) 
planted in Algeria and in California. 

T hales (Fig. 33). — Shape round to pyrif orm ; size large, weight 
2i to 2f ounces, length 2f inches, breadth If to 2 inches ; base rounded ; 
apex flattened, the basin shallow and flaring, the calyx-segments broad 
and short, eye open or closed ; surface yellow-orange to orange in 
color ; skin not thick, tender ; flesh orange-colored, firm and meaty, 
juicy; flavor sweet, suggesting the apricot; quality good; seeds 4 or 
5, the seed cavity not large. Season April to June at Placentia, 
California. 

Syns. Placentia Giant, Gold Nugget. Introduced into California, 
without name, from Japan betwen 1880 and 1890. It is a large, hand- 
some fruit, and possesses unusually good shipping qualities. It is 
considered to be very close to Tanaka, if not 
synonymous with that variety. 

Victor (Fig. 34). — Shape oblong-pyri- 
form; size large, weight 2| ounces, length 
2 J inches, breadth If inches ; base tapering 
slightly; apex slightly flattened, with a 
shallow, flaring basin ; fruit-cluster large, 
loose ; surface deep yellow in color ; skin 
moderately thick and tough ; flesh whitish, 
translucent, melting, very juicy; flavor 
sweet, not very rich ; quality good ; seeds 3 to 5, the seed cavity 
medium-sized. The season of this variety is May and June at Orange, 
California. 

Originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, California, in 1899. A large 
and showy fruit, but not considered valuable in California because it 
ripens late in the season. It is considered especially good for canning. 




The Victor lo- 
(X about i) 



268 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The Capulin (Plate XIII) 
{Prunus salicifolia, HBK.) 

One of the best rosaceous fruits of tropical countries is the 
capulin or wild cherry of Central America and northern South 
America. In its present wild and semi-wild state a fruit of 
fairly good quality, it would seem that with a little attention 
from plant-breeders it might become a valuable addition to the 
list of fruits suitable for moist subtropical regions. Geographi- 
cally it is a tropical fruit, but in climatic requirements it is 
distinctly subtropical, for it does not thrive upon the tropical 
littoral, but grows in cool mountain regions at elevations of 
4000 to 9000 feet. It should, therefore, be sufficiently hardy 
to permit of cultivation as far north as California, Florida, 
and the Gulf states, and it may also be of value for northern 
India, southern Brazil, and similar regions. 

The botany of this species is confused. It seems to differ 
very little from the Prunus Cayollin, Zucc, of Mexico (P. 
Capuli, Cav., Cerasus CapoUin, DC) ; possibly the two are 
identical. Prunus CapoUin is abundant in the Mexican high- 
lands, where it is an important fruit. Prunus salicifolia is 
supposed to be found only in South America, but specimens 
collected in Guatemala have been identified as of this species. 
Horticulturally there is little difference between the capulins 
of Mexico and those of Central America. The name is taken 
from the Nahuatl language of Mexico. In Spanish the fruit is 
often termed cereza (cherry). 

The tree is erect, often somewhat slender, and reaches a 
height of 30 feet. The trunk is stout, reaching as much as 
3 feet in thickness, with bark rough and grayish. The leaves, 
which are borne upon slender petioles f inch long, are commonly 
4| inches in length, oblong-lanceolate in outline, with a long 
slender tip, and are deep green on the upper surface, glaucous 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 269 

below, with margins finely serrate. The flowers, which in 
Guatemala are produced from January to May, are white, about 
f of an inch broad, very numerous, on slender racemes 2 to 4 
inches long. As many as fifteen or twenty fruits sometimes 
develop on a raceme, but half or more fall before reaching matur- 
ity. The ripening season in Guatemala is May to September. 
The fruits resemble northern cherries in appearance ; they are | 
to f inch in diameter, and deep, glossy, maroon-purple in color. 
The skin is thin and tender, though sufficiently firm for the fruit 
not to be easily injured by handling. The flesh is pale green, 
meaty, and full of juice, and the flavor sweet, suggestive of the 
Bigarreau type of cherry, with a trace of bitterness in the skin. 
The stone is rather large in proportion to the size of the fruit. 
Pleasant to eat out of hand, this cherry can also be used 
in various other ways, — stewed, preserved whole, or made into 
jam. In the highlands of Guatemala, where it is abundant, it 
is usually eaten as a fresh fruit or made into a sweet preserve. 
While not equal to the cultivated cherries of the North, — fruits 
which have been produced by generations of selection and 
vegetative propagation, — the capulin is a fruit of remarkably 
good quality for one which has never had the benefit of in- 
telligent cultivation and has been propagated only by seed. 
Naturally, some trees produce much better fruit than others, 
and it will be worth while to select the best seedling forms now 
existing in tropical America and propagate them by budding 
or grafting. 

The Manzanilla (Plate XIII) 
(Crataegus spp.) 

The manzanilla of Guatemala and the tejocote of Mexico 
are fruits so similar in character that they may perhaps belong 
to one species; the former is considered at present to be 
CratcBgus stipulosa, Steud., and the latter C. mexicana, M09. & 



270 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Sesse. It may be allowable to use the common name manzanilla 
(the diminutive of the Spanish manzana, hence little apple) 
for both, since it is better adapted to the English language 
than the Mexican tejocote (from the Nahuatl texocotl, meaning 
stone-plum) . According to Gabriel Alcocer, CratcBgus stipulosa 
is found in Mexico as well as in Guatemala. 

The manzanilla closely resembles some of the northern haws 
in appearance, but it is a larger fruit than most of the latter. 
It occurs only in the highlands, at elevations of 3000 to 9000 
feet. It withstands heavy frosts unharmed, and should be 
suitable for cultivation in subtropical regions with rather dry 
climates. It has done well in southern California, where it 
was introduced some years ago by F. Franceschi under the name 
Crataegus guatemalensis . 

The plant is variable in habit, in some cases shrubby, in 
others becoming a small tree, with a short thick trunk. Com- 
monly it is seen as an erect slender tree about 20 feet high. In 
spring it produces white flowers resembling those of the apple. 
In early fall, beginning about October, the yellow fruits ripen 
and remain abundant in the markets of Mexico and Guatemala 
until Christmas. They resemble small apples in appearance. 
The largest specimens are nearly 2 inches in diameter, but the 
average size is not over 1 inch. The flesh is mealy in texture, 
and not so juicy nor so sprightly in flavor as that of a good 
apple. The seeds, commonly three in number, are rather large. 

The fruits, which are much used for decorative purposes, are 
eaten in the form of jelly and preserves. For stewing, they are 
first boiled with wood-ashes, by which means the skin is easily 
removed; they are then placed in hot sirup and boiled for a 
short time. The flavor of the cooked fruit suggests that of 
stewed apples. 

The plant is simple of culture. It grows most commonly on 
heavy soil and does not require a large amount of water. 
Propagation is usually by seed, but it would be an easy matter 



THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 271 

to bud or graft superior varieties. Both in Mexico and in 
Guatemala the European pear is sometimes top-worked on the 
manzanilla by cleft-grafting. 

The Icaco 
{Chrysobalanus Icaco, L.) 

Although not a fruit of great value, the icaco is extensively 
used in the tropics, especially by the poorer classes. It is 
abundant along the seacoasts of tropical America as a wild 
plant, and is frequently planted in gardens. In southern 
Florida, where it is known as coco-plum, it is not considered 
valuable. In Cuba, where the Spanish name icaco (often spelled 
hicaco and jicaco) is current, the wild fruit is gathered and made 
into a sweet preserve, which is served in Habana restaurants as 
a sobremesa or dessert. In Brazil, where it is called uajuru, its 
use is limited. It is said to occur in Africa as well as in America. 

The icaco is a large shrub or small tree, attaining a maximum 
height of 25 or 30 feet. When grown as a shrub it is rather 
ornamental and it is sometimes planted for this reason. The 
leaves are obovate or obcordate in outline, about 2 inches long, 
thick, glossy, and deep green in color. The flowers are small 
and white, in axillary racemes or cymes. The fruit resembles a 
large plum in appearance, being oval, 1^ inches long, and pinkish 
white, magenta-red, or almost black in color. The skin is thin, 
and the white flesh, which is cottony and of insipid taste, 
adheres closely to the large oblong seed. 

Jacques Huber says that the icaco grows wild in the Amazon 
region on dry sandy soils. In other parts of tropical America 
it is often found on moist rich ground. It is propagated only 
by seed. While there is hope of improving the quality of the 
fruit through selection, it is doubtful, in view of the abundance 
of more promising subjects, whether the species would repay 
attention. The plant is easily grown and withstands light frosts. 



CHAPTER IX 

FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 

The myrtaceous fruits comprise an interesting lot of aromatic 
things, and with blossoms bearing many long and conspicu- 
ous stamens. The Myrtacese include many of the spices, as 
clove, cinnamon, allspice, nutmeg. The eucalyptus belongs 
here; also such ornamental plants as myrtus, callistemon, 
metrosideros, melaleuca. The guava is the most important 
pomological fruit of the family. Most of the guavas belong 
to what is usually considered to be a single species, although 
several Latin names have been applied in the group. 

The Guava (Fig. 35) 

{Psidium Guajava, L.) 

The guava, while useful in many ways, is preeminently 
a fruit for jelly-making and other culinary purposes. To 
the horticulturist the species is admirable as being one of the 
least exacting of all tropical fruits in cultural requirements, 
for it grows and fruits under such unfavorable conditions, 
and spreads so rapidly by means of its seeds, that it has in truth 
become a pest in some regions. It is a fruit of commercial 
importance in many countries, and one whose culture promises 
to become even more extensive than it is at present, for guava 
jelly is generally agreed to be facile princeps of its kind, and is 
certain to find increasing appreciation in the Temperate Zone. 

272 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 



273 



The first account of the guava was written in 1526 by Gonzalo 
Hernandez de Oviedo, and pubHshed in his " Natural History 
of the Indies." Oviedo says : 

"The guayabo is a handsome tree, with a leaf like that of 
the mulberry, but smaller, and the flowers are fragrant, espe- 
cially those of a cer- 
tain kind of these 
guayabos ; it bears an 
apple more substantial 
than those of Spain, 
and of greater weight 
even when, of the same 
size, and it contains 
many seeds, or more 
properly speaking, it is 
full of small hard stones, 
and to those who are 
not used to eating the 
fruit these stones are 
sometimes trouble- 
some; but to those 
familiar with it, the 
fruit is beautiful and 
appetizing, and some 
are red within, others 
white ; and I have seen 
the best ones in the 
Isthmus of Darien and 
nearby on the main- 
land ; those of the islands are not so good, and persons who are 
accustomed to it esteem it as a very good fruit, much better 
than the apple." 

The guava is an arborescent shrub or small tree, sometimes 
growing to 25 or 30 feet. The trunk is slender, with greenish- 




FiG. 35. The common guava of the tropics 
(^Psidium Guajava) , an American plant which has 
become naturalized in southern Asia and else- 
where. (X I) 



274 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

brown scaly bark. The young branchlets are quadrangular. 
The leaves are oblong-elliptic to oval in outline, 3 to 6 inches 
long, acute to rounded at the apex, finely pubescent below, 
with the venation conspicuously impressed on the upper surface. 
Flowers are produced on branchlets of recent growth, and are 
an inch broad, white, solitary, or several together upon a slender 
peduncle. The calyx splits into irregular segments; the four 
petals are oval, delicate in texture. In the center of the flower 
is a brush-like cluster of long stamens. The fruit is round, 
ovoid, or pyriform, 1 to 4 inches in length, commonly yellow in 
color, with flesh varying from white to deep pink or salmon-red. 
Numerous small, reniform, hard seeds are embedded in the 
soft flesh toward the center of the fruit. The flavor is sweet, 
musky, and very distinctive in character, and the ripe fruit 
is aromatic in a high degree. 

The native home of the guava is in tropical America. The 
exact extent of its distribution in pre-Columbian days is not 
known. In the opinion of Alphonse DeCandolle, it occurred 
from Mexico to Peru. In the former country the Aztec name 
for it was xalxocotl, meaning sand-plum, probably a reference to 
the gritty character of the flesh. The name guayaha (whence 
the English guava) is believed to be of Haitian origin. The 
plant was carried at an early day to India, where it has become 
naturalized in several places. It is now cultivated throughout 
the Orient. In Hawaii it has become thoroughly naturalized. 
Occasional specimens are said to be found along the Mediter- 
ranean coast of France, and in Algeria. In short, the guava 
is well distributed throughout the tropics and sub tropics. 

In the United States, the two regions in which guavas can be 
grown are Florida and southern California. The plant is said 
by P. W. Reasoner to have been introduced into the former 
state from Cuba in 1847. It is now naturalized there in many 
places and cultivated in many gardens. It is successful as 
far north as the Pinellas peninsula on the west coast and 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 275 

Cape Canaveral on the east, but has been grown even farther 
north. If frozen down to the ground, the plant sends up 
sprouts which make rapid growth and produce fruit in two 
years. In California the species has not become common, as 
it has in Florida, nor is it suited to so wide a range of territory 
in the former as in the latter state. Accordingly it can only 
be grown successfully in California in protected situations. 
At Hollywood, at Santa Barbara, at Orange, and in other 
localities it grows and fruits well, although occasional severe 
frosts may kill the young branches. 

Guayaba is the common name of Psidium Guajava throughout 
the Spanish-speaking parts of tropical America. The French 
have adopted this in the form goyave, the Germans as guajava, 
and the Portuguese as goiaba. The latter name is used in Brazil, 
where the indigenous name (Tupi language) is aragd guagu 
(large ara^u) . In the Orient there are many local names, some 
of them derived from the American guayaba. The commonest 
Hindustani name, amrud, means "pear." The term safari am, 
meaning "journey mango," is also current in Hindustani. 

The two species Psidium pyriferum and P. pomiferum of 
Linnaeus are now considered to be the pear-shaped and round 
varieties of P. Guajava. They represent two of the many 
variations which occur in this species. The pear-shaped forms 
are often called pear-guava, and the round ones apple-guava. 
A large white-fieshed kind was formerly sold by Florida nursery- 
men under the name Psidium guineejise, and in California as 
P. guianense; but it is now known to be a horticultural form 
of P. Guajava, as is also a round, red-fleshed variety introduced 
into California under the name P. aromaticum. The true P. 
guineense, Sw. (see below) has been itself confused with P. 
Guajava, but can be distinguished from it by its branchlets, 
which are compressed-cylindrical in place of quadrangular, 
and by the number of the transverse veins, which is less than 
in the latter-named species. 



276 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The fruit is eaten in many ways, out of hand, sKced with 
cream, stewed, preserved, and in shortcakes and pies. Com- 
mercially it is used to make the well-known guava jelly and 
other products. When well made, guava jelly is deep wine- 
colored, clear, of very firm consistency, and retains something 
of the pungent musky flavor which characterizes the fresh 
fruit. In Brazil a thick jam, known as goiahada, is manufac- 
tured and sold extensively. A similar product is made in 
Florida and the West Indies under the name of guava cheese 
or guava paste. An analysis at the University of California 
showed the ripe fruit to contain : Water 84.08 per cent, ash 
0.67, protein 0.76, fiber 5.57, total sugars 5.45 (sucrose none), 
starch, etc., 2.54, fat 0.95. 

The guava succeeds on nearly every type of soil. In Cuba 
it does well on red clay, in California it has been grown on 
adobe, and in Florida it thrives on soils which are very light and 
sandy. While not strictly tropical in its requirements, it can 
scarcely be called subtropical. It is found in the tropics at all 
elevations from sea-level to 5000 feet, and it withstands light 
frosts in California and Florida. Mature plants have been 
injured by temperatures of 28° or 29°, but the vitality of the 
guava is so great that it quickly recovers from frosts which 
may seem to have damaged it severely. Young plants, how- 
ever, may be killed by temperatures of only one or two degrees 
below freezing. As regards moisture, writers in India report 
that the guava prefers a rather dry climate. 

The plants may be set from 10 to 15 feet apart, the latter 
distance being preferable. They should be mulched with weeds, 
grass, or other loose material immediately after planting. In 
certain parts of India, where guava cultivation is conducted 
commercially on an extensive scale, it is the custom to set the 
plants 18 to 24 feet apart. Holes 2 feet wide and deep are 
prepared to receive the trees. Occasionally the soil is tilled 
and once a year each plant is given about 20 pounds of barn- 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 277 

yard manure. During the dry season the orchard is irrigated 
every ten days. Very httle pruning is done. 

Seedhng guavas do "not necessarily produce fruit identical 
with that from which they sprang. It is the custom in most 
regions to propagate the guava only by seed, but choice varieties 
which originate as chance seedlings can be perpetuated only 
by some vegetative means of propagation, such as budding or 
grafting. 

Although the seeds retain their viability for many months, 
they should be planted as soon after their removal from 
the fruit as possible. They may be sown in flats or pans 
of light sandy loam and covered to the depth of ^ inch. When 
the young plants appear they should not be watered too lib- 
erally. After they have made their second leaves, they may 
be transferred into small pots. Since they are somewhat 
difficult to transplant from the open ground, they had better 
be carried along in pots until ready to be planted in the orchard. 
The proper season for planting varies in different regions ; 
in India it is said to be July or August ; in California it is April 
and May; while in Florida October and March are good 
months. 

Both shield-budding and patch-budding are successful with 
the guava. Shield-budding is the better method of the two. 
P. J. Wester, who says that the guava was first budded, so far 
as known, in 1894 by H. J. Webber at Bradentown, Florida, 
describes the method in the Philippine Agricultural Review 
for September, 1914. He states that budding should be per- 
formed in winter. While it has been done successfully as late 
as May, the months from November to April are the best (in 
the southern hemisphere the season would, of course, be at the 
opposite time of year). The stock-plants should be young; 
it is best to use them just as soon as they are large enough to 
receive the bud. When inserted in old stocks the buds do not 
sprout readily. The method of budding is the same as that 



278 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

described for the avocado and mango. The bud wood should 
be so far mature that the green color shall have disappeared 
from the bark. The buds should be cut 1 to 1| inches long. 

Patch-budding has been successful in California when large 
stock-plants have been used. They should have stems 1 inch 
in diameter, and the buds should be cut 1| inches in length, 
square or oblong in form. Propagation by cuttings is also 
possible if half-ripened wood is used and bottom-heat is avail- 
able. 

A simple method of propagation, which may be employed 
when it is desired to obtain a limited number of plants from 
a bush producing fruits of particularly choice quality, is as 
follows : With a sharp spade cut into the soil two or three 
feet from the tree, severing the roots which extend outward 
from the trunk. Sprouts will soon make their appearance. 
When they are of suitable size they may be transplanted to 
permanent positions. They will, of course, reproduce the 
parent variety as faithfully as a bud or graft. 

The guava is a heavy bearer and ripens its fruit during a long 
season. In some regions guavas are obtainable throughout 
the year, though not always in large quantities. Seedlings come 
into bearing at three or four years of age ; budded plants may 
bear fruit the second year after they are planted in the orchard. 
Indian horticulturists state that the plants bear heavily for 
fifteen to twenty-five years, and thereafter gradually decline in 
production. The guava is not a long-lived plant, but may 
live and bear fruit for forty years or more. The season of 
ripening in India is November to January ; in Florida and the 
West Indies it is in late summer and autumn. 

The guava is subject to the attacks of numerous insect and 
fungous enemies. The list of scale insects injurious to it is a 
particularly long one, including numerous species belonging 
to the genera Aspidiotus, Ceroplastes, Icerya, Pseudococcus, 
Pulvinaria, and Saissetia. All of these can be held in check by 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 279 

the usual means, i.e., spraying with kerosene emulsion or some 
other insecticide, but little attention is given to this matter in 
most tropical countries. The fruit-flies, including species of 
Anastrepha, Ceratitis, and Dacus, cause serious trouble in 
many regions. It is said that 80 per cent of the guavas pro- 
duced in Hawaii have in some seasons been infested with the 
larvse of the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.). 
The guava fruit-rot, a species of Glomerella, is a common 
fungous disease in some places. There are other pests, some 
of them serious, which the guava-grower may have to 
combat. 

Within the species there evidently exist more or less well- 
defined races, each of which includes many seedling variations. 
Of true horticultural varieties, propagated by cutting or graft- 
ing, there are as yet practically none. The so-called varieties 
listed in different regions are presumably seedling races. Indian 
nurserymen distinguish a number of forms, such as "smooth 
green," "red-fleshed," Karalia, Mirzapuri, and Allahabad. In 
the United States, seedlings are offered of the Allahabad guava, 
and of forms termed Brazilian, Peruvian, lemon, pear, smooth 
green, snow-white, sour, Perico, and Guinea. The number of 
such forms which could be listed is considerable. The Guinea 
variety, a white-fleshed, sweet-fruited guava with few seeds, has 
been propagated in California by budding, but it has not been 
planted extensively. 

The Strawberry Guava (Fig. 36) 

{Psidium Cattleianum, Sabine) 

Unlike the preceding species, the strawberry guava is sub- 
tropical in its requirements, and can be grown wherever the 
orange succeeds. It is ornamental in appearance, and for this 
reason has become a favorite garden-shrub in many regions. 
Though somewhat less valuable than the tropical guava for 



280 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



the commercial production of guava jelly, the fruit is popular 
with housewives and is put to several uses. 

The strawberry guava is ordinarily a bushy shrub, but some- 
times becomes a small tree up to 25 feet high. The bark is 
smooth, gray-brown in color, and the young branchlets are 

cylindrical (not quadran- 
gular as in P. Guajava). 
The leaves are elliptic to 
obovate in outline, acute, 
2 to 3 inches long, thick 
and leathery in texture, 
somewhat glossy, and deep 
green in color. The flow- 
ers, which are produced 
singly upon axillary ped- 
uncles, -are white, and 
nearly an inch broad. 
The calyx is obscurely 
lobed ; the corolla is com- 
posed of four orbicular 
petals. The numerous 
stamens are clustered at 
the bases of the calyx lobes. 
The fruit is obovate to 
round in form, 1 to 1^ 
inches in diameter, pur- 
plish red in color, with a 
thin skin; the soft flesh, 
which is white toward the center, contains numerous hard 
seeds. The flavor is sweet and aromatic, suggesting that 
of the strawberry (whence the common name). It has not 
the pronounced muskiness of P. Guajava, and for this reason 
is preferred by some. 
The strawberry guava is a native of Brazil, whence it was 




Fig. 36. The strawberry guava (Psidium 
Cattleianum) , a hardier species than the 
common guava. (X i) 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 281 

carried to southern China at an early period, presumably by 
the Portuguese. From China it was taken to Europe, where 
it was for some time considered to be native to China and hence 
was called Chinese guava. It has been planted in India, but 
is not widely known in that country. According to H. F. Mac- 
millan, in Ceylon it thrives at elevations of 2000 to 4000 feet. 
In the Mediterranean region it succeeds in southern France, 
Spain, Algeria, and elsewhere. It is grown in Hawaii, but is 
not common there. In Mexico, Central America, and the 
West Indies it is occasionally seen in gardens. In Brazil, its 
native home, it is nowhere extensively cultivated. In the 
United States it thrives in both Florida and California. 

Besides the name strawberry guava, the terms Cattley 
guava and Chinese guava are sometimes applied to this species. 
In Brazil it is known as aragd da praia and aragd wrmelho. 
Nurserymen in the United States have sent out seedling races 
or horticultural forms of this species under several botanical 
names ; the yellow-fruited form (variety lucidum of horticulture) 
has been listed as Psidium lucidum, P. chinense, and P. sinense. 
A form distributed in California under the name P. acre, Ten., 
has proved to be identical with the yellow-fruited strawberry 
guava, except in its elongated fruits. Otto Berg considered 
P. Cattleianum and P. littorale, Raddi, synonyms of P. variahile, 
Berg ; more recently, however, the two last-named species have 
been included under P. Cattleianum. A large-fruited guava 
which appears to be nothing more than a form of this species has 
been distributed in California under the name Psidium Aragd. 
It is similar to the yellow-fruited strawberry guava, except in 
its larger and broader leaves, larger fruit, and fewer seeds. 

The fruit is used principally for jelly-making, but is some- 
times eaten out of hand. An analysis made at the University of 
California showed the ripe fruit to contain : Water 79.42 per 
cent, ash 0.77, protein 0.88, fiber 6.58, total sugars 5.06, 
starch, etc., 6.49, and fat 0.80. 



282 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Like other species of Psidium, the strawberry guava succeeds 
on a wide variety of soils. A rich sandy loam seems to suit 
it best, but it grows well on red clay and on adobe. It is not 
quite so successful on shallow sandy soils. The mature plant 
withstands severe frosts without serious injury; temperatures 
of 22° above zero have not killed it. A dry climate suits it 
better than a moist one, if the soil is irrigated with reasonable 
frequency. It is fairly drought-resistant. 

Young plants 12 inches high may be set in the open ground 
in the positions they are to occupy permanently. They may 
be spaced 10 X 10 feet in California, but in the tropics, and on 
rich soil, they should be somewhat farther apart. They 
require the same cultural treatment as the tropical guava. 
During the first few years the plants retain a compact bushy 
form ; later they may develop trunks and become small trees. 
They need very little pruning. 

Propagation is usually by seed, which method is more satis- 
factory with the strawberry guava than it is with many other 
of the fruits here discussed, since there is less variation among 
seedlings. Particularly choice varieties cannot, however, be 
propagated by this means. Cuttings are sometimes grown, 
and the species may be budded in the same manner as Psidium 
Guajava. Seeds are germinated as in that species. 

The plants come into bearing very early and should pro- 
duce a few fruits the second or third year after planting. Their 
growth is slow; hence good crops cannot be expected until 
the plants are five or six years old. The season of ripening in 
Florida and California is from August to October. 

The strawberry guava suffers much less from the attacks of 
insect parasites than does the tropical guava. As a garden 
plant in California and Florida it has thus far been subject to 
few pests. 

No horticultural varieties have as yet been established. The 
seedling race or botanical variety lucidum, known as the Chinese 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY ' 283 

or yellow Cattley guava, differs from the typical strawberry 
guava in its sulfur-yellow color and more delicate flavor. It is 
very productive, and so far as is known, comes true when 
grown from seed. 

Other Guavas 

Costa Rican guava (Psidium Friedriclisthalianum, Ndz.). 

This is a species from Central America which recently has 
been introduced into California, Florida, and a few other regions. 
In the countries where it is native it is found occasionally in 
gardens, but nowhere is it cultivated extensively. Its fruit 
is highly acid and is valued for jelly-making. 

The tree is erect, about 25 feet high, with slender trunk and 
branches. The young branchlets are wiry, quadrangular and 
reddish in color. The leaves are elliptic, oblong-elliptic, or 
oval in form, 1| to 3 inches long, acuminate at the apex, almost 
glossy on the upper surface and puberulent on the lower. The 
flowers are produced singly on slender peduncles; they are 
white, fragrant, and about an inch broad. The calyx is closed, 
but splits into irregular segments when the flower expands. 
The petals, five in number, are waxy in appearance. The fruit 
is round or oval in form, and 1| to 2i inches long, sulfur-yellow 
in color, with comparatively few seeds, and soft white flesh of 
acid flavor with none of the musky aroma which characterizes 
some of the other guavas. 

In Costa Rica the indigenous name for this fruit is cds. A 
plant which has been introduced into the United States from 
the island of Trinidad under the name Psidium laurifolium is 
evidently P. Friedriclisthalianum. When planted in southern 
Florida it has grown well, but in southern California it has 
usually been killed by frost. Plants in Florida have not borne 
heavy crops, and the species does not seem to possess great 
promise for that state. 



284 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Guisaro (Psidium molle, Bertol.) . 

This shrub from southern Mexico and Central America is 
now cultivated in a few gardens in southern California and 
southern Florida. The acid fruits, smaller than those of the 
Costa Rican guava, are used only for jelly-making. 

The plant is of slender habit, and rarely grows more than 10 
feet high. The young branchlets, peduncles, and lower surfaces 
of the leaves are reddish-velvety, which makes it easy to dis- 
tinguish the species from P. Guajava. The leaves are oblong- 
oval, 3 to 5 inches long, obtuse at the apex, and rather stiff. 
The flowers, of which three are commonly borne upon each 
peduncle, resemble those of the common guava (P. Guajava). 
The fruit is round, about 1 inch in diameter, yellowish green 
to pale yellow in color, with whitish flesh containing numerous 
small hard seeds. The flavor is acid with little of the muski- 
ness which characterizes some other guavas. 

This is the chamach of northern Guatemala, often called 
guayaba acida in Spanish. In California it has proved to be 
hardier than P. Guajava and of simple culture. In Florida 
some plants have not borne good crops while others have been 
productive. It cannot be considered a valuable species. 

Brazilian guava (Psidium guineense, Sw.). 

While this species is scarcely known horticulturally, so much 
confusion has existed regarding its identity that it seems 
desirable to include it here. As was stated on a former page, 
the guava which has been disseminated in Florida under this 
name is properly a horticultural form of P. Guajava; the true 
P. guineense may have been planted in a few Florida gardens, 
but it is not well known in that state. It is grown in Cuba, 
although not widely, so far as is known. 

The shrub is of slender habit. The young branchlets are com- 
pressed-cylindrical and finely hairy. The leaves are oblong- 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 285 

oval, acute or obtuse, 3 to 5 inches long, with the lower surfaces 
pubescent. The flowers, of which one to three are borne upon 
a single peduncle, resemble those of P. Guajava. The fruit is 
round or nearly so, 1 to li inches in diameter, greenish-yellow 
and rather hard when ripe, with whitish flesh containing numer- 
ous small seeds. The flavor is subacid, and not so musky as 
that of P. Guajava. 

This guava was considered by Swartz, who first described it, 
to be indigenous to Africa, but more recent knowledge shows 
this to be improbable. P. Aragd, Raddi, is a synonym of this 
species. In Brazil many wild guavas are known by the indige- 
nous (Tupi) name aragd, a fact which has led North American 
nurserymen, who have obtained seeds from that country, to 
apply the name P. Aragd erroneously to several species of 
Psidium. P. guineense is easily distinguished from P. Guajava 
by its compressed-cylindrical branchlets ; by the upper surfaces 
of the leaves not having the venation impressed as in the latter 
species, and by the number of the lateral veins, which are 
7 to 12 (commonly 8 or 9) pairs, in place of 12 to 18 (commonly 
14 to 16) pairs. 

The quality of the fruit is not sufficiently good to make the 
species of great horticultural value. 

Para guava (Britoa acida, Berg). 

Since it does not belong to the genus Psidium this fruit is 
not properly entitled to be called a guava, but its similarity to 
the true guavas in nearly every respect makes it horticulturally 
permissible to include it with them. In Brazil it is known as 
Aragd do Pard. It is indigenous there, and is occasionally seen 
in cultivation in several parts of the country. It has been 
introduced into Florida, where it has been distributed under the 
name Psidium Aragd. This is a good fruit, worthy of wider dis- 
semination in tropical countries. Its requirements appear to 
resemble closely those of the common guava, P. Guajava. 



286 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The plant becomes an erect shrub or small tree up to 25 or 
30 feet in height, with slender branches and quadrangular 
winged branchlets. The leaves, which are borne upon very 
short petioles, are oblong-ovate or oblong-lanceolate in outline, 
2 to 4 inches long, acuminate, glabrous, and somewhat glossy. 
The flowers, which are solitary in the leaf-axils, are borne upon 
slender quadrangular peduncles. The calyx is closed, splitting 
when the flower expands, forming several irregular segments. 
The petals are white and five in number. The fruit is oval or 
roundish in form, 2 to 3 inches long, sulfur-yellow in color, 
with soft whitish pulp containing a few seeds of larger size than 
those of the true guavas. The flavor is acid but pleasant, 
similar to that of the guava but with little of that fruit's 
musky aroma. 

The Pitanga (Fig. 37) 
(Eugenia uniflora, L.) 

The pitanga is the best of the Eugenias. Outside of Brazil it 
is not appreciated as it deserves to be, although it is commonly 
grown in several countries. In its native home it is a popular 
favorite. Father Tavares observes: "Surely Brazil does not 
need to envy Europe her cherry trees, bending in May under 
the weight of their ruby fruits. Our pitangas surpass them 
both in beauty and taste." 

In the United States the pitanga is usually seen as a broad 
compact shrub, but in Brazil it sometimes becomes a small 
tree up to 25 feet in height. The foliage is deep green and 
somewhat glossy, the new growth being of rich wine-color. 
The branchlets are thin and wiry, the leaves subsessile, ovate 
in outline, bluntly acuminate at the apex and rounded at the 
base, 1 to 2 inches long, and glabrous. When crushed, the 
leaves emit a pungent agreeable odor, for which reason they 
are sometimes scattered over the floors of Brazilian houses. 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY '287 

The fragrance they give off when trampled under foot is doubly- 
appreciated as being thought efficacious in driving away flies. 
The white slightly fragrant flowers are ^ inch broad, and are 
borne in the axils of the leaves. They have four oblong cupped 
petals, with a prominent cluster of stamens in the center. The 
fruit is oblate in form, conspicuously eight-ribbed, up to one 



Fig. 37. The pitanga (Eugenia uniflora), an excellent fruit from Brazil which 
should be more extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. (X |) 

inch in diameter, deep crimson in color when fully ripe, and 
crowned at the apex with the persistent calyx-lobes. The 
flesh is soft, juicy, concolorous with the skin, and of aromatic 
sub-acid flavor. Usually there is one large round seed, but 
sometimes two hemispherical ones. 

The pitanga is indigenous in Brazil, extending over a wide 
area. Father Tavares ^ reports that it occurs in the states 

1 Broteria, No. 5, 1912. 



288 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

of Rio de Janeiro, Parana, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do 
Sul. In wild form it usually grows along the banks of streams 
and in the edge of the forest, but it is also common in cultiva- 
tion throughout many parts of Brazil. At Bahia it is particu- 
larly abundant; in fact, it takes an important place among 
the cultivated fruits of the region. 

From its native home it was carried to India at an early date, 
undoubtedly by the Portuguese, but is not commonly culti- 
vated in that country at the present time. In Ceylon, accord- 
ing to H. F. Macmillan, it thrives at elevations of 1000 to 3000 
feet. It has been reported from southern China, where it was 
probably introduced by the Portuguese. In Hawaii it has be- 
come a common garden-shrub. L. Trabut ^ believes that it 
would rapidly become more popular in Algeria if it fruited more 
abundantly, since it has been found quite hardy along the 
coast. It has also proved hardy in the garden of A. Robertson- 
Proschowsky at Nice, on the Mediterranean coast of France. 
In Cuba it is occasionally seen in gardens. In the United 
States its culture is limited to Florida and California. Writ- 
ing in 1887, P. W. Reasoner said : "The tree is quite frequently 
met with in Orange county and middle Florida, and is gaining 
in favor as a fruit-bearing plant." It is now common in 
gardens along the lower east coast of Florida (especially in the 
vicinity of Miami, where the fruit has begun to appear in the 
markets) and on the west coast from Fort Myers northward 
to Tampa Bay. After the plants have attained the requisite 
age, they fruit abundantly, sometimes producing two crops a 
year. 

In California the pitanga has not become so common as in 
Florida, owing perhaps to the fact that many of the plants 
which have been tested in various parts of the state have not 
fruited well. F. Franceschi reported in 1895 that it was grow- 
ing at Montecito, near Santa Barbara, but it still is rare in 
1 Revue Horticole de I'Algerie, p. 161, 1908. 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 289 

California gardens. If it is found that the plants, after attain- 
ing sufficient age, will fruit abundantly, as has been indicated 
by the behavior of specimens at Santa Barbara and Orange, 
the pitanga should certainly be planted extensively in Cali- 
fornia. Up to four or five years of age it does not produce 
much fruit. 

The local names of this fruit are several. In the United 
States it is known as Surinam-cherry, and less commonly 
Cayenne-cherry and Florida-cherry. The name pitanga which 
is used throughout Brazil was applied to this fruit by the Tupi 
Indians, who inhabited Brazil at the time of its discovery by 
Europeans. According to Martins, the word is derived from 
the Tupi piter, to drink, and anga, odor or scent. In India it is 
called Brazil-cherry, and in Ceylon, goraka-jambo. The 
common names in French are cerise de Cayenne and cerise 
carree. In Spanish it is sometimes called cereza de Cayena. 
While most commonly known botanically as Eugenia uniflora, 
L., several synonyms have been used by botanists : E. Michelii, 
Lam., is one which is frequently seen. Stenocalyx Michelii, 
Berg, was used by Barbosa Rodrigues in Brazil, and S. hras- 
iliensis, Berg, by M. Pio Correa. A plant introduced into 
California as E. Pitanga, Kiaersk., seems to be of the uniflora 
species ; the true E. Pitanga has narrow leaves acute at the base. 

The uses of the pitanga are numerous. As a fresh fruit it is 
delicious, when fully ripe, although the novice sometimes 
finds the strongly aromatic flavor slightly disagreeable. Before 
full ripeness, the flavor is resinous and pungent. As the fruits 
ripen they lose their green color, becoming yellow, then orange, 
and finally scarlet or crimson. They should never be eaten 
until quite mature. Jelly made from the pitanga possesses a 
distinctive flavor, and vies in popularity with guava jelly 
among the inhabitants of Bahia, Brazil. Pitanga sherbet is a 
favorite refreshment in Bahia, and is regularly served in the 
cafes. It is salmon-pink in color and delicious in flavor. A 



290 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

liqueur is sometimes prepared from the fruit, and also sirups 
and wines which are considered by the Brazilians to have 
medicinal value. 

Alice R. Thompson, who has analyzed the fruit in Hawaii, 
finds that it contains : Total solids 9.30 per cent, ash 0.34, acids 
1.44, protein 1.01, total sugars 6.06, fat 0.66, and fiber 0.34. 

In Brazil the plant is commonly used to form hedges, for 
which purpose it is admirably adapted since it withstands 
heavy pruning, and is evergreen, with foliage of rich green 
color. Plants in hedgerows, however, produce little fruit 
compared with those which are allowed to develop naturally. 
The foliage is often used for decorative purposes, in the same 
manner as holly is employed in northern countries. 

The pitanga thrives in both the tropical and subtropical 
zones, its culture extending as far north as southern California 
and central Florida in this hemisphere, and the Mediterranean 
region in Europe. Mature plants withstand temperatures of 
27° or 28° above zero without serious injury. They are more 
at home and fruit more profusely in a warm moist climate 
such as that of southern Florida than in a semi-arid region. 
On the dry plains of northern India, on the Algerian littoral, 
and in southern California, the complaint is made that they 
do not bear well, although in Florida and in the moist tropical 
regions they are heavily productive. It is not known, however, 
just what is the limiting factor. 

Father Tavares states that the plant prefers a light sandy 
soil. It grows very well in southern Florida on shallow sand 
overlying soft limestone, and equally well in California on 
sandy loam. At Bahia, Brazil, it is commonly found on stiff 
clay. It can thus be seen that it is very adaptable in regard 
to soil and apparently does not object to a large amount of 
lime, as is indicated by its growth in Florida. 

Unless trained, the plants usually assume a bushy compact 
form, branching close to the ground. They may be planted 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 291 

in the open when they are a foot high, and require no unusual 
care. In California they have proved to be fairly drought- 
resistant, but they succeed best when watered liberally. Their 
growth is not rapid under any circumstances, and several years 
are required for them to reach fruiting size. In the tropics 
they come into bearing the third or fourth year. 

In Florida no serious enemies of the plant have been noted. 
E. A. Back has found in Bermuda, however, that the pitanga 
is one of the principal hosts of the Mediterranean fruit-fly 
(Ceratitis capitata Wied.), a widely distributed pest in tropical 
regions. 

Seed propagation is the only means of multiplication of the 
pitanga in common use. Whip-grafting has been reported as 
successful but has not been employed extensively. Seedlings 
sometimes spring up beneath the bushes from fruits allowed 
to fall to the ground; these can readily be transplanted and 
saved. Seeds should be planted while fresh, though they may 
be kept for a month or more if they are washed immediately 
after being removed from the fruit and then dried. They may 
be germinated in two-inch pots, or may be planted in flats and 
potted off when they are 2 to 3 inches high. Germination 
usually takes place within two or three weeks. Unlike the 
rose-apple {Eugenia Jamhos), which is polyembryonic and 
produces four or five plants from a single seed, the pitanga 
produces only one plant from each seed. The young plants 
grow slowly and do not require frequent shifting into larger 
pots. Light sandy loam, which need not be very rich, is the 
best potting soil. 

In Florida and the West Indies the main crop ripens in 
early spring. The plants flower in February, and the fruits 
develop very rapidly, maturing five or six weeks after the 
flowers have fallen. The main crop, which is usually a heavy 
one, ripens at one time, extending over a period of about two 
weeks ; following this the plants sometimes produce scattering 



292 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

flowers, and begin to ripen a second crop about a month after 
the first, extending through early summer. In the second crop 
only a limited number of fruits ripen at one time. 

In Brazil the plants bloom in September and ripen their 
first crop in October, flowering again for the second crop in 
December and January. Father Tavares says that the fruits 
ripen at Bahia within three weeks from the appearance of the 
flowers. In California the season is late summer. 

Under favorable conditions the pitanga is one of the most 
prolific of fruits. The flowers, which are very fragrant, are 
pollinated by bees and probably by other insects. The plants 
must be watered liberally when the fruits begin to color, 
otherwise the latter will remain small. 

Since the pitanga is rarely propagated vegetatively, no 
horticultural varieties have been established. Nurserymen in 
Florida have disseminated a seedling race under the name of 
"black-fruited" which differs from the common form in being 
deeper crimson in color and having a distinctive flavor. There 
is considerable variation among seedlings of the common type 
although they come sufficiently true from seed for this method 
of propagation to be satisfactory. The size of the seed is not 
always the same in proportion to the size of the fruit, and plants 
have been observed in Brazil which normally produce larger 
fruits than the average. Differences in productiveness have 
also been noticed. It will be worth while, therefore, to perfect 
means of grafting or budding this species so that the best seed- 
ling forms can be propagated. 

The Feijoa (Plate XIV, Fig. 38) 

(Feijoa Sellowiana, Berg) 

Edouard Andre, one of the greatest French horticulturists 
of the past century, took home with him when he returned from 
a voyage to South America in 1890 plants of Feijoa Sellowiana, 




Plate XV. A fruiting jaboticaba tree. 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 



293 



a fruit at that time unknown save as a wild species upon the 
campos of southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and parts of 
Argentina. He tried them in his garden on the Riviera, and 
they succeeded remarkably well. In 1898, by means of an 
article in the Revue Hor- 
ticole, he brought the 
stranger to the attention 
of horticulturists, and it 
was soon planted experi- 
mentally all along the 
Riviera. About 1900 it 
was introduced into Cali- 
fornia, where its cultiva- 
tion has attracted much 
attention in the past few 
years. Its prompt dis- 
semination in that state 
was due largely to the 
efforts of F. Franceschi 
of Santa Barbara. 

As a rule wild fruits, 
or those which have not 
been improved by culti- 
vation, are seedy or have 
scanty flesh. The feijoa, 
taken directly from the 
wild, is remarkable for 
the minute size of its 
seeds, its abundance of 
flesh, and its delicious perfumed flavor. 

The plant reaches an ultimate height of 15 or 18 feet. There 
are several types in cultivation ; one may be compact, low- 
growing, while another will be tall, open, and inclined to be 
straggling in habit. The leaves are similar in form and appear- 




FiG. 38 



Foliage, flowers, and fruits of the 
feijoa {Feijoa Sellowiana). (X 3) 



294 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

ance to those of the olive, but usually larger. The upper 
surface is glossy green, the lower silver-gray. The flowers are 
1| inches broad and strikingly handsome. They are peculiar 
in that the fleshy petals are good to eat. The four petals are 
cupped, white outside and purplish within ; and the long stiff 
stamens form a conspicuous crimson tuft in the center. The 
fruit is round, oval, or oblong in shape, 1 to 3 inches long, dull 
green in color, overspread with a thick whitish bloom, and 
sometimes blushed dull red on one side. The thin skin in- 
closes a layer of granular flesh, whitish and about ^ inch thick, 
which surrounds a quantity of translucent, jelly-like pulp in 
which twenty to thirty minute seeds are embedded. The 
flavor is suggestiA^e of pineapple and strawberry, and when 
properly ripened the fruit has a penetrating and delightful 
aroma. 

In its native country the feijoa is scarcely known as a culti- 
vated plant. It is a wild species, called guayaho del 'pais. In 
southern France it is found in a number of gardens, but it is not 
yet commercially cultivated there, although the desirability of 
extending its culture has been pointed out by several promi- 
nent horticulturists. It has been found to succeed in Algeria 
and L. Trabut recommends it as a promising new fruit for that 
country. Although introduced into Cuba, southern Florida, 
and several other tropical regions, it has not been successful 
in any of them. It has become evident that the plant is sub- 
tropical in its requirements, and that it cannot be expected to 
produce good fruit in moist tropical regions. In the dry climate 
of California it is eminently successful. Numerous small com- 
mercial plantings have been made in various parts of the state, 
and the fruit has begun to appear regularly in the markets. 

The feijoa may be eaten as a fresh fruit, or it may be stewed, 
or made into jam or jelly. Different opinions have been ex- 
pressed regarding its value as a fresh fruit; those who have 
eaten perfectly ripened specimens of a good variety have in- 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 295 

variably praised it, while others who have been less fortunate 
and have chanced to try improperly ripened ones or those of an 
inferior variety, have considered that the feijoa does not 
merit the praise which has been bestowed on it. An analysis 
of the ripe fruit made at the University of California shows it 
to contain : Water 84.88 per cent, ash 0.56, protein 0.82, fat 
0.24, carbohydrates 4.24 (invert sugar 2.66, sucrose 1.58), and 
crude fiber 3.35. 

The feijoa is hardier than many other subtropical fruits. 
It has withstood with little injury temperatures as low as 15° 
above zero. It delights in a dry climate but one free from 
extremely high temperatures. As was mentioned above, it 
has not proved successful in moist tropical regions. It is so 
drought-resistant that it has been grown successfully at Santa 
Barbara, California, with no artificial irrigation; yet it must 
be irrigated as liberally as the citrus fruits if the best results 
are to be obtained. In the extremely hot desert valleys of 
California, such as the Coachella, it has not been fully success- 
ful. Edouard Andre pointed out that the native home of the 
feijoa is the region of Cocos australis; it is probable, therefore, 
that the climate to which the plant is naturally adapted is a 
mild one, free from extremes of temperature, and having a 
yearly rainfall of 30 to 40 inches. 

A sandy loam, rich in humus, is considered to be the ideal 
soil for the feijoa. In California it has been grown success- 
fully on adobe, red clay, and sandy loam. French horticultur- 
ists consider that the plant will not tolerate much lime. It is 
not known whether its failure to produce good fruit in Florida 
is due solely to unfavorable climatic conditions, or whether 
the light sandy soils, often containing much lime, are partly 
responsible. 

The plants should be spaced 15 to 18 feet apart if they are 
not to crowd one another when mature. While young they 
should be watered liberally, and it is desirable to keep a heavy 



296 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

mulch around them to prevent evaporation. In California 
it is customary to form a basin around each plant; after the 
mulch is added there is still room for water, of which one or 
two buckets should be given weekly during the dry season. 
After the plants reach fruiting age, they should be irrigated 
every two or three weeks. When a mulch is not used, the 
ground should be cultivated after each irrigation. 

The amount of manure which can be used advantageously 
has not been determined. It has been the general practice 
in California to give the young plants an abundance of stable 
manure, and the effect of this seems to be highly beneficial. 
There has been a suspicion that large amounts of manure, if 
applied to bearing plants, would decrease the production of 
fruit, but the evidence is not convincing. Lack of pollination 
is probably the cause of many crop failures which are attributed 
to excessive soil fertilization. 

Plants of the compact low-growing type require almost no 
pruning. Those of tall straggling form often need cutting 
back in order to keep. the branches from developing to such 
great length that they cannot support their own weight. 

Seedling feijoas do not reproduce the parent variety and are 
less satisfactory than plants propagated by some vegetative 
means. Layering is used in France. In the United States 
many plants have been grown from cuttings, and not a few by 
whip-grafting. 

When seedlings are grown, they should be from plants which 
produce good fruits in abundance. If kept dry, feijoa seeds 
will retain their viability a year or more. One of the best 
mediums for germinating them is a mixture of silver-sand and 
well-rotted redwood sawdust. They are small and delicate, 
and should not be planted in heavy soil. A light sandy loam, 
containing much humus, is satisfactory. The seeds should 
be sown in pans or flats, covering to the depth of | inch. Ger- 
mination usually takes place within three weeks. A glass- 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 297 

house is not necessary, but the flats containing the seeds should 
be kept in a frame with lath or slat covering to provide half- 
shade. As soon as the young plants have made their second 
leaves they should be pricked off into two-inch pots; after 
attaining a height of 4 inches they should be shifted into three- 
inch pots, from which they can later be transplanted into the 
open ground. 

Layering is somewhat tedious, but with the feijoa is more 
successful than any other vegetative means of propagation. 
Those branches which are nearest the ground are bent down 
and covered with soil for the space of 3 to 6 inches. They 
require no care except keeping the soil moist. They will root in 
about six months, after which time they may be severed from 
the parent and set in their permanent positions. 

Cuttings are successfully rooted under glass, and occasionally 
in the slat-house or lath-house. They should be of young 
wood from the ends of branches, and about 4 inches in length. 
Inserted in clear sand over bottom-heat, they will strike roots 
in a month or two ; without bottom-heat they root very slowly. 
It is sometimes advised to keep them covered with a bell-jar. 
In Florida good results have been obtained by using as cuttings 
the young sprouts which appear around the base of the plant ; 
these are removed with a heel when still quite small, and are 
planted in sand. Although they are slow to form roots, the 
percentage of loss is lower than when branch-tips are used. 

Whip-grafting has given good results in some instances, 
and is probably one of the best methods of propagating the 
feijoa. The stock-plants should be of the diameter of a 
lead-pencil, the cions slightly smaller and of firm wood. 
Grafting has been successful both under glass and in the open 
ground. 

Many feijoa plants which have been grown in California 
have borne little or no fruit. It has commonly been thought 
that wrong cultural practices were the cause of this, but the 



298 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

investigations of K. A. Ryerson and the author indicate that 
self-sterility may be to blame in many instances. 

In its native home, the feijoa is believed to be pollinated by 
certain birds that visit the flowers in order to eat the fleshy 
sweet petals. The stamens and style project to a considerable 
height in the center of the flower; they brush against the 
breast of the visiting bird and pollen-grains adhere to its 
feathers. When it visits the next plant some of these pollen- 
grains are likely to come in contact with the stigmas of other 
flowers and remain upon them. Cross-pollination is thus 
effected. 

In the United States the birds which do this work in the 
habitat of the feijoa are not present; consequently the plant 
must depend on other pollinating agencies. In some instances 
feijoa plants are self-fertile, and abundant fruits are produced 
when the flowers are self-pollinated. In other instances, it 
has been found that they are self-sterile, and can develop fruits 
only when pollen is brought from a different plant. The pollen 
of self -sterile feijoas has been found potent, when applied to 
flowers of other individuals. 

To avoid the dissemination of self-sterile feijoas, varieties 
known to be self-fertile should be propagated by vegetative 
means. Seedlings, even if grown from a self-fertile variety, 
may nevertheless be self-sterile. 

Grafted or layered plants begin bearing two or three years 
after they are planted. Seedlings may not bear until the 
fourth or fifth year. Self -fertile varieties often yield regularly 
and abundantly. The ripening season in California is October 
to December. The fruits fall to the ground when mature, 
and must be laid in a cool place until they are in condition 
for eating, — which can be known by their becoming slightly 
soft, and by their perfumed aroma. They spoil quickly in a 
hot, humid atmosphere, but if stored in a cool place they may 
be kept a month in good condition. They can be shipped long 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 299 

distances without difSculty. Feijoas are usually packed for 
market in fruit-baskets holding about two quarts. 

To be appreciated, this fruit must be eaten at the proper 
degree of ripeness. M. Vi viand-Morel says, " Everyone knows 
that the finest pears are only turnips if eaten a trifle too soon 
or a trifle too late." The observation is applicable also to the 
feijoa. 

The plant is attacked by few insect pests. The black scale 
(Saissetia oleoB Bernard) is the principal enemy which has been 
noted. No fungous parasites have yet become troublesome. 

In the Pomona College Journal of Economic Botany (Feb- 
ruary, 1912), the writer has described three varieties of the 
feijoa, the Andre, the Besson, and the Hehre. The Andre, 
described below, is the only one which has been widely dis- 
seminated. Other varieties which have originated in Cali- 
fornia as seedlings have been propagated to a limited extent, 
but they are little known as yet. 

Andre. — Form oblong to oval ; size medium, length 2 to 2^ inches, 
breadth 1| inches; base rounded, the stem inserted without depres- 
sion ; apex rounded, the calyx-segments cupped ; surface roughened, 
light green in color, overspread with a thick whitish bloom ; flesh 
whitish, juicy, of spicy, aromatic flavor suggesting the pineapple and 
the strawberry; seeds few, small. Season November and December 
on the French Riviera and in southern California. 

This variety is of unknown origin. It was brought to France 
from Uruguay in 1890 by Edouard Andre, and was planted in his 
garden at Golfe-Juan, on the Riviera. Layered plants were later 
sent from France to California. It is self-fertile, and fruits profusely. 
The shrub is sometimes erect and open in habit, and in other instances 
low, compact, and broad. 

The Jaboticaba (Plate XV) 

(Myrciaria spp.) 

In southern Brazil there are a number of indigenous fruits 
of genuine merit. The jaboticaba is one of the best, but like 



300 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

many of the others it has until recently received little attention 
outside its native home. 

Among the fruit-trees cultivated in Rio de Janeiro and its 
vicinity, the jaboticaba is one of the commonest and certainly 
the one which first attracts the attention of the newcomer. Its 
habit of producing the fruit directly upon the trunk and larger 
limbs, together with the unusual beauty of its symmetrical and 
umbrageous head of pale green foliage, makes this a peculiarly 
striking tree. The fruit is popular and highly esteemed by all 
classes of Brazilians, and occupies an important position in the 
markets. 

When grown on rich soil, the tree reaches a height of 35 or 40 
feet. The leaves are ovate-elliptic to lanceolate, acute to 
acuminate at the apex, usually glabrous, and vary from f inch 
to 3 inches in length. The flowers are small, white, with four 
petals and a prominent cluster of stamens. They are produced 
singly or in clusters on the bark of the trunk and limbs. The 
fruit is round, i to li inches in diameter, maroon-purple in 
color, and crowned with a small disk at the apex. The skin is 
thicker and tougher than that of a grape. The translucent 
juicy pulp, whitish or tinged with rose, is of agreeable vinous 
flavor. The seeds, one to four in number, are oval to round in 
outline and compressed laterally. 

The jaboticaba is usually listed as Myrciaria caulifiora, Berg. 
There are several closely related species, however, whose fruits 
are all known under the same common name. M. trunciflora, 
Berg, and M. jaboticaba, Berg, probably furnish many of the 
fruits sold as jaboticabas in the markets of Rio de Janeiro. 
Father Tavares considers that the cultivated forms are in some 
instances the result of hybridization. 

As a wild plant the jaboticaba is limited to southern Brazil, 
from Rio Grande do Sul to Minas Geraes. It is cultivated 
in the same area, as well as in a few other parts of Brazil. It 
has been introduced into the United States and a few other 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 301 

countries, but has not yet become established in any of 
them. 

The uses of the jaboticaba are several. As a fresh fruit it is 
as popular in southern Brazil as the grape is in the eastern 
United States. A wine can be made from it, and also an ex- 
cellent jelly. 

While the tree is said to succeed on any soil, it prefers one 
that is rich and deep. Its growth is slow, six to eight years 
being required for it to come into bearing. In Brazilian orchards 
this tree is nearly always planted too closely; the distance 
apart should be 30 feet at least. Though rarely grown in those 
parts of Brazil which are subject to severe frosts, the jaboticaba 
has shown in the United States that it resists comparatively 
low temperatures. At Miami, Florida, it has passed success- 
fully through a freeze of 26° above zero. So far as can be judged 
from the limited experience which has been gained, the soils of 
southern Florida are not well adapted to it. Those of southern 
California are more suitable, but the climate has proved to be 
too cold in all but the most protected spots in that state. The 
jaboticaba appears to demand for full success a deep rich soil 
and a moist, equable, rather cool climate with temperatures 
preferably never below the freezing-point. 

Little attention is given in Brazil to the culture of this tree. 
Father Tavares says that the fazendeiros (planters) of Sao 
Paulo, who irrigate their trees at times when there is a scarcity of 
rain, succeed in having ripe jaboticabas throughout the year. 
Without irrigation, fruit is produced usually during the warmest 
months of the year. When heavily laden with fruit, the tree 
is a curious sight. Not only is the trunk covered with clusters 
of glistening jaboticabas, but the fruiting extends to the limbs 
and out to the tips of the smallest branches. 

Propagation is usually by seed. It is said, however, that 
young plants can be inarched successfully : if so, choice varieties 
could well be propagated in this manner. Other methods of 



302 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

propagation will doubtless be developed when the jaboticaba 
becomes more widely grown. 

The Brazilians cultivate as named varieties a number of 
forms which must either be distinct species or seedling races. 
The name jaboticaba, without any qualifying word, is considered 
to be applied properly only to Myrciaria cauliflora. The 
closely allied M. jaboticaba is known as jaboticaba de Sdo Paulo, 
jaboticaba de cabinho, and jaboticaba do matto. According to 
Father Tavares, M. tenella, Berg, is known as jaboticaba macia. 
The fruits of the various species are very much alike. The 
form coroa, which is one of the commonest named "varieties" 
recognized in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes, can probably 
be referred to M. caidiflora. The form murta has small leaves ; 
it is, perhaps, another form of the same species. The variety 
branca (white) is listed by nurserymen in Rio de Janeiro, also 
roxa (red) ; both are said to be distinct from the ordinary jaboti- 
caba in color. 

Other Myrtaceous Fruits 

Grumichama {Eugenia Dombeyi, Skeels) (Fig. 39). 

This is a better fruit than several other species of Eugenia 
which are much more widely grown. It is found both wild and 
cultivated in southern Brazil, particularly in the states of 
Parana and Santa Catharina. Elsewhere, with the exception 
of Hawaii, it is scarcely known. 

The tree, which grows to the same size as the orange, is 
shapely and attractive in appearance, with ovate-elliptic, glossy, 
deep green leaves 2 to 3 inches long. The small white flowers 
are followed by pendent fruits, round or slightly flattened, the 
size of a cherry, and deep crimson in color. The persistent 
green sepals which crown the apex are a distinguishing char- 
acteristic. The skin is thin and delicate ; the flesh soft, melting, 
pf a mild subacid flavor suggesting that of a Bigarreau cherry. 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 



303 



The seeds are round or hemispherical when one or two in num- 
ber; sometimes there are three or more, in which case the 
size is reduced and they are angular. 

The rapidity with which the fruits develop is surprising; 
within a month from the time of flowering they have reached 
maturity and are falling to the ground. Father Tavares states 
that all the trees do not ripen their crops at the same time, some 
blooming later than others and thus extending the fruiting 
season from November to February (in Brazil) . Three varieties 
are distinguished by him, 
one with dark red flesh, 
another with vermilion, 
and the third with white. 
All three are said to be 
equally good in quality. 
The fruit is usually eaten 
fresh, but may also be 
used to make jams and 
preserves. 

The grumichama 
(sometimes grumixama, 
to conform to old Portu- 

.1 1 \ 1 oeyi) , a iixtie 

guese orthography) has -q^^^^^ (^ f) 
recently been planted in 
California and Florida. In the latter state it has withstood a 
temperature of 26° without injury, which indicates that it is 
subtropical, rather than strictly tropical, in character. It pre- 
fers a deep sandy loam, but succeeds in Florida on shallow sandy 
soils. Vaughan MacCaughey says : " In the Hawaiian islands 
it is usually about 20 feet high. It requires considerable mois- 
ture for its best development, as do all the Eugenias in our flora ; 
the largest crops are borne by plants at the lower levels, up to 
300 feet . . . flowering and fruiting continues from July until 
December, the main crop coming in the fall. . . . The first 




Fig. 39. The grumichama {Eugenia Dom- 
beyi), a little-known fruit from southeastern 



304 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

plants in Hawaii were probably introduced by the Spaniard, 
Don Francisco de Paula Marin, who came to the islands in 
1791." The grumichama is sometimes listed as Eugenia 
hrasiliensis, Lam. Stenocalyx hrasiliensis, Berg, is another 
synonym. 

Seedlings are said to commence fruiting when four or five 
years old. They grow rather slowly. No one appears to 
have budded or grafted the species as yet. For its value 
as an ornamental plant as well as for its pleasant fruit, the 
grumichama deserves cultivation throughout the tropics and 
subtropics. 

Jamholan (Eugenia jamholana, Lam.). 

This species, whose native home is in the East Indies, is of 
little value in comparison with several of its congeners. It is a 
small tree, with large, oblong, apiculate, glossy leaves, white 
flowers, and oval, purplish red fruits commonly i inch in length. 
It is said that forms with large fruits of good quality are known 
in the Orient, but those which have been grown in the United 
States are scarcely worth cultivating. The plant is slightly 
less hardy than the rose-apple (see below), but can be grown 
successfully in southern Florida and in protected situations in 
southern California. It is said to succeed in Algiers, where it is 
known by the French name jamelongue. In English it is some- 
times called Java-plum, while in India it is commonly known 
as jambu and jaman. According to Watt's " Dictionary of the 
Economic Products of India," it is "A small evergreen tree met 
with throughout India and Burma, ascending the hills to about 
6000 feet. It is chiefly found along river beds and is specially 
cultivated for its fruit in gardens (topes) and in avenues. There 
are several varieties that yield much better flavored fruit than 
others, but as a rule it is astringent, and only serviceable when 
cooked in tarts and puddings." 

The propagation of the plant is usually by seed. Its botanical 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 305 

synonymy is rather extensive; Syzygium jambolana, DC, 
Syzygium Cumini, Skeels, and Eugenia Cumini, Druce, are 
names under which it is sometimes hsted. 

Rose-apple (Eugenia Jambos, L.) (Plate XVI). 

As an ornamental tree, the rose-apple is of value for all tropical 
and subtropical regions. As a fruit it is beautiful and interest- 
ing, but is not much used except for making preserves. 

The tree grows to 25 or 30 feet in height, and is shapely and 
attractive in appearance. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate, 
acuminate, 5 to 8 inches long, thick and glossy, with the new 
growth wine-colored. The flowers are produced upon the young 
branchlets in short terminal racemes. They are greenish white 
in color and have a conspicuous tuft of long stamens which 
almost hide the other floral parts from view. The calyx-tube 
is turbinate, and the corolla composed of four obovate concave 
petals. The fruit is round or oval, 1 to 2 inches in length, 
and crowned at the apex with the calyx-segments. In color 
it is whitish green to apricot-yellow; it is perfumed with the 
odor of the rose, and is attractive in appearance. The flesh 
is crisp, juicy, and sweet. The single, round seed (or some- 
times two hemispherical ones) is loose in the large hollow 
seed-cavity. 

The rose-apple is indigenous in the East Indies, whence 
it has been carried to all parts of the tropics. It has become 
naturalized in the West Indies, in Hawaii, and in other regions. 
In India, where it is very abundant, it is usually known as 
gulah-jaman (rose jaman). Yule and Burnell state that the 
Sanskrit name jambu is applied in the Malay language, with 
distinguishing adjectives, to several species of Eugenia. Jambo 
and yambo are sometimes used in English for the rose-apple. 
In French it is called pomme-rose, in Spanish poma-rosa. Bo- 
tanically it is sometimes listed as Jambosa vulgaris, DC, 
sometimes as Caryophyllus Jambos, Stokes. 



306 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The tree is hardy in southern California and throughout the 
southern and central parts of Florida. It succeeds equall}^ well 
in warm, moist, tropical regions and in the cool and dry sub- 
tropics. In Florida it is esteemed as an ornamental plant. The 
fresh fruit is fragrant and attractive, but owing to its peculiar 
character it is not pleasant to eat unless in small quantities; 
yet as a preserve or crystallized it is delicious. On account of its 
beauty it is often used for table decoration. Its enticing per- 
fume, strikingly similar to that of rose-water, makes it unique 
among fruits. 

According to an analysis made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thomp- 
son, the ripe fruit contains : Total solids 15.85 per cent, ash 
0.29, acids 0.03, protein 0.79, total sugars 11.73, fat 0.18, and 
fiber 0.98 per cent. 

The plant thrives on soils of diverse types. While a rich 
loam perhaps best suits it, the shallow sandy soils of south- 
eastern Florida have proved altogether satisfactory. It is of 
slow growth, and comes into bearing when four or five years old. 
When in bloom it is highly ornamental as it is also when the 
yellow fruits are ripe. It does not bear heavily, but fruiting 
extends over a long season. 

Propagation of the rose-apple is usually by seed. Like the 
mango it is peculiar in that its seeds are polyembryonic ; thus 
a single seed may give rise to seven or eight plants. P. J. 
Wester has found that the species lends itself to bud-propaga- 
tion. The method is the same as that used with the avocado 
and mango. Wester says : " Use greenish to brownish and 
roughish, well-matured budwood ; cut the buds an inch and a 
quarter long. The age of the stock at the point of insertion 
is unimportant." Large-fruited varieties, or those otherwise 
desirable, may be propagated by this means. 

No named varieties of this very interesting fruit have been 
disseminated. 




Plate XVI. Flowers and fruits of the rose-apple {Eugenia Jambos). 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 



307 



Pera do campo {Eugenia Klotzschiana, Berg) (Fig. 40). 

This is a rare eugenia from the campos or rolling plains of 
central Brazil (Minas Geraes), which has recently been intro- 
duced into the United States. It is slender in habit and grows 
not more than 4 or 5 feet high. The leaves are lanceolate, 3 to 
5 inches long, hard and brittle in texture and silvery pubescent 
on the lower surface. 
The pear-shaped, downy, 
golden-yellow fruits, 2 to 
4 inches in length, ripen 
in Brazil from November 
to January. They have 
soft, juicy, acid jBesh, and 
are highly aromatic in 
odor and flavor. The 
seeds, one to four in 
number, are irregularly 
oval in form and small 
in size. 

Pitomba (Eugenia 
luschnathiana, Berg). 

This is a fruit-tree 

found wild and culti- ^^°- ^0- '^^^X^ar^C^'l/'^''^''''"^^"''' 
vated in the state of 

Bahia, Brazil. It attains a height of 25 to 30 feet, and is of 
handsome appearance. The leaves are lanceolate, 3 inches 
long, glossy and deep green on the upper surface, light green 
below. The fruits are broadly obovate in form, 1 inch long, 
with the apex crowned by four or five green sepals | inch 
long. The color is bright orange-yellow. The skin is thin, 
and the flesh soft, melting, juicy, with an acid, highly aromatic 
flavor. The seeds, commonly one but sometimes as many as 




308 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



four, are rounded or angular according to number, and at- 
tached to one side of the seed cavity. Propagation is usu- 
ally by seed. The botanical name Phyllocalyx Luschnathianus, 
Berg, is sometimes used. 

Ohia (Eugenia malaccensis, L.) (Fig. 41). 

This species is a native of the Malayan Archipelago, whence 
it has been introduced into other tropical regions. It is now 

the most important eugenia in 
the Hawaiian flora. Vaughan 
MacCaughey ^ says of it : 
"This beautiful tree was intro- 
duced by the primitive Ha- 
waiians and is now abundant 
in the humid valleys and ra- 
vines on all the islands. It is 
distinctly a tree of the lower 
forest zone, where it forms pure 
stands, some of which, on the 
broad valley floors, cover areas- 
of several hundred acres." 

The tree sometimes reaches 
60 feet in height. The leaves 
are elliptic-oblong to oblong- 
obovate, acute, 6 or 7 inches in 
length, thick, glossy, and dark 
green in color. To quote again 
MacCaughey : " The flowers are 
showy clusters of long, spread- 
ing, bright red stamens, that contrast charmingly with the rich 
foliage. During the flowering season, in early summer, the 
shady interior of the tree seems to be filled with a delicate 
scarlet haze." The fruits are oval to obovate in form, 2 to 3 
1 Torreya, Dec, 1916. 




Fig. 41. The ohia (Eugenia malac- 
censis), a Malayan fruit little known 
in the American tropics. The tree is 
handsome, but the fruit is not of very 
good quality. (X about §) 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 309 

inches long, and white to crimson in color. The skin is thin, 
the flesh crisp, "apple-like," white, and juicy, with refreshing 
subacid flavor. In Hawaii this species is often called mountain- 
apple. In the Orient it is known as Malay-apple, and in French, 
jamelac. In the British West Indies, where it was introduced 
from Tahiti in 1793, it is often termed Otaheite-apple. Accord- 
ing to W. Harris, it is now common in the wet warm districts 
of Jamaica. Botanically it is sometimes listed as Jambosa 
malaccensis, DC, and also as Caryophyllus malaccensis, 
Stokes. 

The fruit is not especially esteemed. It is somewhat pithy 
in texture and its flavor is not rich. Alice R. Thompson finds 
it to contain : Total solids 8.61 per cent, ash 0.13, acids .06, 
protein 0.21, total sugars 6.88, fat 0.03, and fiber 0.56. 

The ohia is tropical in its requirements and cannot be grown 
in regions subject to frost. So far as is known, it has never 
been brought to fruiting age either in California or Florida. 
It is probable, however, that few attempts have been made to 
grow it in either state, and that it might succeed in the extreme 
southern part of Florida. In Ceylon it is said by H. F. Mac- 
millan to thrive at elevations up to 2000 feet. It is grown 
successfully at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

It is propagated by seed, and also, according to Thomas 
Firminger, by layers. It cannot be recommended, however, 
for extensive cultivation as a fruit-producing tree. As an 
ornamental plant for the tropics it is distinctly valuable. In 
Hawaii a variety with white flowers and fruits is found. 

Uvalha (Eugenia Uvalha, Cambess.). 

This shrub or small tree is found both wild and cultivated in 
southern Brazil. The leaves are oblong, obtuse, and aromatic 
when crushed ; the fruits are round or oblate in form, 1 inch 
in diameter, yellow or orange in color, and crowned at the apex 
with the remnants of the calyx. The skin is thin, the flesh soft 



310 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

and juicy, with an intense and agreeable aroma. The acid 
flavor causes the fruit to be used principally for making refresh- 
ing drinks. It is little-known outside of Brazil. 

Cabelluda {Eugenia tomentosa, Cambess.). 

This myrtaceous fruit is found both indigenous and cultivated 
in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. When well grown, 
the tree is handsome and of value as an ornamental plant. 
It reaches a height of 15 to 25 feet. The leaves are oblong- 
lanceolate, 2 to 4 inches long, bright green and tomentose above, 
dull green and tomentose below. The fruits, which ripen in 
October and November at Rio de Janeiro, resemble large 
gooseberries in appearance. They are yellow when fully ripe 
and nearly 1 inch in diameter. The skin is firm and tough, 
downy externally; the flesh is juicy and of pleasant subacid 
flavor. The one or two large seeds are surrounded by coarse 
short fibers. The cabelluda, sometimes listed as Phyllocalyx 
tomentosus, Berg, is scarcely known outside of Brazil. It has 
been introduced recently into the United States, where it should 
succeed in California and Florida, It is not a fruit of much 
merit. 

Guabiroha {Abhevillea Fenzliana, Berg). 

This is another small tree found both wild and cultivated in 
southern Brazil, especially in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro. It 
grows to 30 or 40 feet in height, and has foliage which resembles 
that of some of the European oaks. The leaves are elliptic- 
ovate in form, about 2 inches long, with the venation depressed 
above and salient below. The flowers resemble those of the 
guava. The fruits are oblate in form, nearly 1 inch in diameter, 
orange-yellow in color, and crowned with the large disk and 
persistent calyx-segments. The surface is somewhat wrinkled, 
and the thin skin surrounds a soft, yellow flesh in which numer- 
ous seeds are embedded. The flavor is similar to that of the 



FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 311 

guava but less pleasant. This plant, sometimes listed as 
Campomanesia Fenzliana, Glaziou, has been introduced into 
Florida, where it grows well and has withstood a temperature of 
26° above zero without injury. The fruit is used in the same 
manner as the guava, but is not of great value. 

Downy myrtle (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Wight). 

This myrtle is a small, handsome shrub, valuable as an orna- 
mental plant as well as for its fruit. The leaves are elliptic or 
obovate, obtuse, 1 to 2| inches long. The rose-pink flowers 
are followed by round fruits somewhat resembling a large black 
currant in size and character. The downy myrtle (sometimes 
called hill-gooseberry) is probably best known in southern 
India, where it occurs commonly in the mountains. It is said 
by H. F. Macmillan to succeed in Ceylon only at high elevations. 
It is grown also in southern China, and to a very limited extent 
in Florida and California. It withstands several degrees of 
frost. The fruits are said to make excellent pies, and they 
may also be eaten out of hand. Sir Joseph Hooker says that 
they are used in India to prepare a jam called theonti. The 
plant is not particular regarding soil, and is readily propagated 
by means of seeds, which should be sown in flats of light soil and 
covered to a depth of ^ inch. The botanical name Myrtus 
tomentosa, Alton, is sometimes given it. Everything considered, 
the downy myrtle should repay wider cultivation than it receives 
at present. 



CHAPTER X 
THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 

The Sapindacese or Soapberry family comprises a number of 
fruits prized in the tropics, which may be brought together 
in one chapter. In temperate climates the family yields no 
important edible fruits. Some botanists place the maples and 
buckeyes in this family, but these plants are now commonly 
separated in other closely related families. 

The Litchi (Plate XVII, Fig. 42) 
(Litchi chinensis, Sonn.) 

While living in exile at Canton, the poet Su Tung-po declared 
that litchis would reconcile one to eternal banishment. Yet 
he did not allow his enthusiasm to draw him into gastronomic 
indiscretions, for he limited himself to a modest three hundred 
a day, while other men (so he says) did not stop short of a 
thousand. 

Chang Chow-ling, an illustrious statesman of the eighth 
century of our era, composed a poem on the litchi in which he 
praised it as the most luscious of all fruits. Modern Chinese 
critics fully concur in this opinion. Neither the orange nor the 
peach, two of the finest fruits of southern China, is held to 
equal it in quality. 

Nor is the litchi one of those rare and delicate fruits known 
only to the favored few. In southern Asia, where its cultivation 
dates back at least two thousand years, it is grown extensively 
and millions are familiar with it. That it should still be un- 

312 



THE LIT CHI AND ITS RELATIVES 



313 



known in most parts of the western tropics is probably due 
to the perishable nature of the seeds. Before the days of steam 
navigation, it was difficult to transport them successfully from 
one continent to another. 

"An orchard of litchis," wrote the eminent E. Bonavia of 
India, "say of a few hundred trees, and with ordinary care, 
would give a handsome and almost certain annual return for 
not improbably a hundred years." 
While it has been considered that 
the litchi is somewhat exacting in 
its cultural requirements, it can be 
grown successfully in many parts 
of the tropics and subtro^ics. Now 
that it has been established in trop- 
ical America, there is no reason why 
it should not there become one of 
the common fruits, nor why fresh 
litchis should not be found on fruit- 
stands of northern cities at least as 
abundantly as are the dried ones at 
present. 

It is in the form of dried litchis, 
"litchi nuts," that North Ameri- 
cans are usually acquainted with 
this fruit. The Chinese who live in 
the United States import them in large quantities, and are 
particularly prone to indulging in them at the time of their 
New Year celebrations. But the dried litchi resembles the 
fresh one even less than the dried apple of the grocery store 
resembles a Gravenstein just picked from the tree. To appre- 
ciate its excellence, one must taste the fresh litchi ; although a 
fairly true estimate of it may be acquired from the canned or 
preserved product, which much resembles preserved Muscat 
grapes in flavor. 




Fig. 42. Fruits of a good va- 
riety of the litchi. Kinds which 
are altogether seedless have been 
reported, but in the best-known 
sorts the seed is about the size 
of the one here shown. (X i) 



314 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Judging by the experience of the past few years, it should 
be possible to produce litchis commercially in southwestern 
Florida (the Fort Myers region), where there is relative freedom 
from frost and where the soils are deep and moist. It is doubt- 
ful whether there are any localities in southern California 
adapted to commercial litchi culture, but trees have been 
grown at Santa Barbara and in the foothill region near Los 
Angeles (Monrovia, Glendora). While the dry climate and 
cool winter weather of California are unfavorable, it seems prob- 
able that litchis may be grown on a small scale in this state, 
if planted in sheltered situations and given protection from 
frost for the first few years. 

Because of its value as an ornamental tree, the litchi is rec- 
ommended for planting in parks and gardens. It grows to an 
ultimate height of 35 or 40 feet (less in some regions), and forms 
a broad round-topped crown well supplied with glossy light 
green foliage. The leaves are compound, with two to four 
pairs of elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, sharply acute, glabrous 
leaflets 2 to 3 inches long. The flowers, which are small and 
unattractive, are borne in terminal panicles sometimes a foot 
in length. They are said to appear in northern India in Feb- 
ruary and in China during April. The fruits, which are produced 
in loose clusters of two or three to twenty or even more, have 
been likened to strawberries in appearance. In shape they are 
oval to ovate, in diameter 1| inches in the better varieties, and 
in color deep rose when fully ripe, changing to dull brown as the 
fruit dries. The outer covering is hard and brittle, rough on 
the surface and divided into small scale-like areas. The seed is 
small, shriveled, and not viable in some of the grafted varieties ; 
in seedlings it is as large as a good-sized castor-bean, and glossy 
dark brown in color. Surrounding it and separating from it 
readily is the flesh (technically aril), which is white, translucent, 
firm, and juicy. The flavor is subacid, suggestive of the Bigar- 
reau cherry or (according to some) the Muscat grape. 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 315 

Regarding the origin and early history of the fruit Alphonse 
DeCandolle says : " Chinese authors living at Pekin only knew 
the litchi late in the third century of our era. Its introduction 
into Bengal took place at the end of the eighteenth century. 
Every one admits that the species is a native of the south of 
China, and, Blume adds, of Cochin-China and the Philippine 
Islands, but it does not seem that any botanist has found it in a 
truly wild state. This is probably because the southern part 
of China towards Siam has been little visited. In Cochin- 
China and in Burma and at Chittagong the litchi is only culti- 
vated." 

Macgowan ^ recounts that litchis were first sent as tribute to 
the emperor Kao Tsu about 200 B.C. These were dried fruits, 
however ; later fresh ones were forwarded by relays of men, and 
one is happy to learn that though the cost in human life was 
frightful they reached the emperor in good condition. The 
Emperor Wu Ti (140-87 B.C.) made several attempts to 
bring trees from Annam and plant them in his garden at Chang- 
an, but he was not successful in raising them. 

According to Walter T. Swingle, the first published work 
devoted exclusively to fruit-culture was written by a Chinese 
scholar in 1056 a.d. on the varieties of the litchi. 

The principal provinces of China in which litchis are grown 
are Fukien, Kwantung, and Szechwan. In Kwangtung Prov- 
ince alone the annual crop is said to be twenty million to thirty 
million pounds, worth $1,000,000 to $1,500,000. The region 
around Canton is considered the most favorable part of China 
for litchi culture. North of Foochow the tree is not successful. 

While litchis are by no means so extensively grown in India 
as they are in southern China, there are several districts in 
which they are produced commercially. The most important 
are said to be in Bengal ; about Muzaffarpur (in Bihar) ; and 
at Saharanpur (United Provinces of Agra and Oudh). E. 

^ Journal of the Agri-Horticultural Society of India, 1884, p. 195. 



316 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Bonaviasays : "The tree does admirably in Lucknow, and should 
do as well all over the northwestern provinces, but it flourishes 
best, I believe, in Bengal. Who knows what untold litchi 
wealth there may be in the fine black soil of the central prov- 
inces, so centrally situated for fruit trade ? " 

In Cochin-China, in Madagascar, and in a few other countries 
of the East, the tree is cultivated on a limited scale. In Hawaii, 
where it is believed to have been introduced about 1873, it has 
succeeded remarkably well, and much attention has lately been 
given to its commercial cultivation, without, however, any 
large orchards having been established as yet. 

According to William Harris, it was introduced into Jamaica 
in 1775, but it is still rare in that island. A tree at Santa Bar- 
bara, California, which produced a few fruits in 1914, was the 
first to come into bearing in the United States. While the 
litchi is believed to have been planted in Florida as early as 
1886, it was not until 1916 that the first fruits were produced 
in that state. These were from plants introduced from China 
in 1906. A few trees have borne in Cuba, Brazil, and other 
parts of tropical America. 

The common name of this fruit is variously spelled, — litchi, 
lichee, lychee, leechee, lichi, laichi, and so on. Yule and Burnell 
state that the pronunciation in northern China is lee-chee, 
while in the southern part of the country it is ly-chee. Since 
the form litchi has been fixed as a part of the botanical name of 
the species, and since it is employed extensively as the common 
name, it may be well to retain it in preference to others. The 
pronunciation ly-chee, which is used in the region where the 
fruit is grown, is generally preferred to leechee. Botanically 
the plant is Litchi chinensis, Sonn. Nephelium Litchi, Cambess., 
is a synonym. 

While the litchi is probably best as a fresh fruit, Frank N. 
Meyer says that it is considered by some to be more delicious 
when preserved (canned) than when fresh ; and he adds : " No 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 317 

good dinner, even in northern China (where the Ktehi is not 
grown) is really complete without some of these delicious little 
fruits." The dried litchi tastes something like the raisin. 
Consul P. R. Josselyn of Canton writes : "There are two ways 
of drying litchis, — by sun and by fire. The sun dried litchi 
has a finer flavor and commands a better price than the fire 
dried fruit." Only two or three varieties are considered suit- 
able for drying. Regarding the preserving industry, Josselyn 
remarks : " It is estimated by dealers that the annual export 
of tinned litchis from Canton is about 3000 boxes, or 192,000 
pounds. Each box of preserved litchis contains 48 tins, weigh- 
ing 1 catty each. Each tin contains about 28 litchis. There 
are five large dealers in Canton who make a business of pre- 
serving these litchis. In addition to the preserved litchis 
exported from Canton large quantities of the fresh fruit are 
shipped from the producing districts surrounding Canton to 
Hongkong and are there preserved in tin." 

An analysis of the fresh fruit, made in Hawaii by Alice R. 
Thompson, shows it to contain : Total solids 20.92 percent, ash 
0.54, acids 1.16, protein 1.15, and total sugars 15.3. 

Cultivation. 

In general it must be considered that the litchi is tropical 
in its requirements. It likes a moist atmosphere, abundant 
rainfall, and freedom from frosts. It can be grown in sub- 
tropical regions, however, where the climate is moist or if abun- 
dant water is supplied, and where severe frosts are not commonly 
experienced. 

Young plants will not withstand temperatures below the 
freezing point. In regions subject to frost they should, there- 
fore, be given careful protection during the winter. The 
mature tree is not seriously injured by several degrees of frost, 
but at Miami, Florida, plants six feet high were killed by a 
temperature of 26° above zero. 



318 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Rev. William N. Brewster of Hinghua, Fukien, China, de- 
scribing the conditions under which the trees are cultivated 
in that country, says: "They will not flourish north of the 
frost line. They are particularly sensitive to cold when young. 
It is the custom here to wrap the trees with straw to protect 
them from the cold. After the trees are five or six years old 
they are less sensitive, and it takes quite a heavy frost to injure 
them." 

Regarding soil, G. W. Groff of the Canton Christian College 
writes : " The litchi seems to do best on dykes of low land where 
its roots can always secure all the water needed, and where 
they are even subjected to periods of immersion. In some places 
they grow on high land but not nearly so successfully." The 
Rev. Mr. Brewster says on this subject : " The trees flourish 
in a soft, moist black soil ; alluvium seems best. Near by or 
on the bank of a stream or irrigation canal is best, though this 
is not essential. Where there is no stream the trees should be 
watered so frequently that the ground below the surface is 
always moist ; about twice a week when rain is not abundant 
should be enough. After the young trees are well started, 
about two or three years old, the irrigations may be less fre- 
quent." 

These authorities, are quoted to show the conditions under 
which the litchi is grown in China. Experience in other 
countries has shown the tree to be reasonably adaptable in 
regard to both climate and soil. While it prefers a humid atmos- 
phere, it has succeeded in the relatively dry climate of Santa 
Barbara, California, without more frequent irrigation than other 
fruit-trees. On the plains of northern India, where the atmos- 
phere is comparatively dry and the annual rainfall about 40 
inches, it is cultivated on a commercial scale. Although the 
best soil may be a rich alluvial loam, it has done well in Florida 
on light sandy loam. It has not been successful, however, 
on the rocky lands of southeastern Florida. Whether these 



TUB LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 319 

lands are too dry, or whether the litchi disHkes the large amounts 
of lime which they contain, cannot be stated definitely. In 
undertaking to grow this tree, four desiderata should be kept 
in mind : first, freedom from injurious frosts ; second, a humid 
atmosphere ; third, a deep loamy soil ; and fourth, an abundance 
of soil-moisture. When one or more of these is naturally lack- 
ing, efforts must be made to correct the deficiency in so far as 
possible. Frost-injury can be lessened by protecting the 
trees ; low atmospheric humidity is not badly prejudicial if 
the soil is abundantly moist; sandy soils may be made more 
suitable by adding humus-forming material; and a soil 
naturally dry may be irrigated regularly and frequently. 

In regions where the litchi tree grows to large size, it is not 
advisable to space the plants closer than 30 feet apart, and 40 
feet is considered better. In Florida they can be set more 
closely without harm ; 25 feet will probably be a suitable dis- 
tance. In localities where frost protection must be given, it 
may be desirable to plant the trees under sheds, and in this case 
economy will demand that they be crowded as much as possible. 
At Oneco, near Bradentown, Florida, E. N. Reasoner has fruited 
the litchi very successfully in a region usually considered too 
cold for it, by growing it in a shed covered during the winter 
with thin muslin to keep off frost, and opened in the summer. 
If it is commercially profitable to erect sheds over pineapple- 
fields, — and it has proved so in certain parts of Florida, — 
there seems to be no reason why it should not be much more 
profitable to grow the litchi in this way, in regions where pro- 
tection from frost is necessary. 

The trees should be planted in holes previously prepared by 
excavating to a depth of several feet, and incorporating with the 
soil a liberal amount of leaf-mold, well-rotted manure, rich loam, 
or other material which will increase the amount of humus. 
This is, of course, more important where the soil is light and 
sandy, as it is in many parts of Florida, than where the humus- 



820 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

content is high. Basins may be formed around the trees to 
hold water. 

Bonavia writes : " As the trees grow, their thalas or water- 
saucers should be enlarged and on no account should the fallen 
leaves be removed from them, but allowed to decay there and 
form a surface layer of leaf-mold. . . . Every hot weather 
thin layers of about two or three inches of any other dried 
leaves should be spread over the thalas, and allowed to decay 
there, to be renewed when they crumple up and decay." This 
corresponds to the mulching generally practiced in western 
countries. It has been remarked by several writers that the 
litchi is a shallow-rooted tree, with most of its feeding roots 
close to the surface. If this really is the case, mulching will 
probably be an essential practice, and deep tilling of the soil 
will have to be avoided. 

Rev. Mr. Brewster says : " Fertilization is important. 
Guano is probably as good as anything. The Chinese use 
night soil. They dig a shallow trench around the tree at the 
end of the roots and fill it with liquid manure of some sort. 
This is done about once in three months." J. E. Higgins,^ in 
his bulletin "The Litchi in Hawaii," notes that "Some 
growers prefer to put the manure on as a top dressing and 
cover it with a heavy mulch because of the tendency of the 
litchi to form surface roots." 

The tree requires little pruning. Higgins says : "The custom- 
ary manner of gathering the fruit, by breaking with it branches 
10 to 12 inches long, provides in itself a form of pruning which 
some growers insist is necessary for the continued productivity 
of the tree." But a thorough study has yet to be made of this 
subject in the Occident. 

Hand-in-hand with the development of litchi-growing in 
the American tropics and subtropics will come the development 
of new cultural methods. The information at present available 
iBull. 44, Hawaii Agri. Exp. Sta., 1917. 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 321 

is meager, and too apt to be characterized by the generahties 
of the Hindu horticulturist : " Too much manure should not 
be applied to newly planted or small trees. As the tree 
flourishes, more and more manure should be applied," writes 
one of them, in a treatise on litchi-culture. The literature of 
tropical pomology is burdened with information of this nature, 
and the need is for more specific data based on experience. 

Propagation. 

Propagation of the litchi is commonly effected by two means : 
seed, and air-layering (known in India as guti) . Higgins writes 
on this subject : 

" As seeds do not reproduce the variety from wliieli they have been 
taken, and as the seedlings are of rather slow growth and require 
many years to come into bearing, it has for many years been the custom 
in China, the land of the litchi, to propagate the best varieties by layer- 
ing or by air-layering, a process which has come to be known as 
' Chinese layering ' and is applied to many kinds of plants. In air- 
layering, a branch is surrounded with soil until roots have formed, after 
which it is removed, and established as a new tree. In applying the 
method to the litchi, a branch from f to 1| inches in diameter is 
wounded by the complete removal of a ring of bark just below a bud, 
where it is desired to have the roots start. The cut is usually sur- 
rounded by soil held in place by a heavy wrapping of burlap or similar 
material, although sometimes a box is elevated into the tree for this 
purpose. Several ingenious devices have been made to supply the soil 
with constant moisture. Sometimes a can with a very small opening 
in the bottom is suspended above the soil and filled with water which 
passes out drop by drop into the soil. Again, sometimes the water is 
conducted, from a can or other vessel placed above the soil, by means 
of a loosely woven rope, one end of which is placed in the water, the 
other on the soil, the water passing over by capillarity. 

" Air-layering is commenced at about the beginning of the season of 
most active growth, and several months are required for the establish- 
ment of a root system sufficient to support an independent tree. 
When a good ball of roots has formed, the branch is cut off below 
the soil, or the box, after which it is generally placed in a larger box 
or tub to become more firmly established before being set out per- 
manently. At first it is well to provide some shade and protection 
from the wind, and it is often necessary to cut back the top of the 
branch severely, so as to secure a proper proportion of stem to root." 



322 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Regarding methods of propagation employed in China, 
Groff says : " I have never seen a budded or grafted litchi 
tree, and I understand it is never done. Litchi trees are either 
inarched or layered, the latter being the most common and 
most successful. If inarched it is on litchi stock. The common 
practice in inarching is to use the Loh Mai Chi variety for cion 
and the San Chi for stock." The method of layering mentioned 
by Groff is that described above. Inarching is treated in this 
volume in connection with the propagation of the mango. It is 
a tedious process of grafting little used in America, but more 
certain than budding and other methods. 

Litchi seeds are short-lived. If removed from the fruit 
and dried, they retain their viability not more than four or five 
days. If they remain in the fruit, however, and the latter is 
not allowed to dry, they can be kept for three or four weeks. 
In this way they can be shipped to great distances, or they may 
be removed from the fruit, packed in moist sphagnum moss, and 
allowed to germinate en route. Some of the choice grafted 
varieties, such as the Bedana of India, do not produce viable 
seeds. 

Higgins recommends that the seeds be sown in pots sunk in 
well-drained soil. They should be placed hortizontally about i 
inch below the surface of the soil, and after they have germinated 
the seedlings should be kept in half-shade. 

Attention has recently been given to the possibility of grafting 
or budding the litchi on the longan {Euphoria Longana) and 
other relatives (see below). Higgins has successfully crown- 
grafted the litchi on large longan stocks. He says, "Repeated 
experiments with this method have shown that there is no 
great difiiculty in securing a union of the litchi with the longan. 
A noteworthy influence of the stock on the cion should be 
mentioned here. The growth produced is very much more 
rapid than that of the litchi on its own roots, and in some cases 
the character of the foliage seems to undergo a change." Addi- 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 323 

tional experience is required, however, to show the practical 
value of the longan and other stocks. The field is an interesting 
one, and important results are likely to be secured. 

Yield and season. 

Seedling litchis have been known to bear fruit at five years 
of age. It is commonly held that they should bear when seven 
to nine years old. In some instances, however, trees twenty 
years old have failed to produce fruit. Higgins remarks, "Wide 
variability in the age of coming into bearing has been noted 
with seedlings of other tropical fruits, especially the avocado, 
but the litchi appears most extreme in this respect." 

Layered plants tend to bear when very young. Sometimes 
they will flower a year after planting, and mature a few fruits 
when two years old, but three to five years is the age at which 
they normally come into bearing. 

The litchi is famed as a long-lived tree. An early Chinese 
account (not necessarily to be credited) mentions one which 
was cut down when it was 800 years old. Bonavia considered 
that litchis should remain in profitable bearing for a century 
at least. Mature trees have been found in Hawaii to yield 200 
to 300 pounds of fruit yearly, and crops of 1000 pounds have 
been reported. Under good cultural conditions, the tree can 
be expected to produce a crop every year. Again quoting 
Bonavia, it may be said that the tree "bears annually an 
abundant crop of fine, well-flavored and aromatic fruits, which 
can readily be sent to distant markets. Instead of being planted 
by ones or twos, it should be planted by the thousand." 

In picking the fruit, entire clusters are usually broken off, 
with several inches of stem attached. If the individual fruits 
are pulled off the stems, they are said not to keep well. After 
they are picked the fruits soon lose their attractive red color, 
but they can be kept for two or three weeks without deteriorat- 
ing in flavor. The Chinese sometimes sprinkle them with a salt 



324 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

solution and pack them in joints of bamboo for shipment to 
distant markets. At the Hawaii Experiment Station it was 
found that "refrigeration, where it is available, furnishes the 
best means of preserving the litchi for a limited period in its 
natural state. . . . There is no doubt that refrigeration will 
provide a very satisfactory method for placing upon American 
markets the litchi crop grown in Florida, California, Hawaii, 
Porto Rico, or Cuba." 

The season of ripening in southern China is from May to 
July. In northern India it is slightly earlier. In Honolulu 
fresh litchis sell for 50 to 75 cents a pound. 

Pests and diseases. 

Little is known regarding the enemies of the litchi in China. 
Brewster says : " There is a worm which makes a ring around 
the trunk under the bark. When the circle is complete the 
tree dies ; but the bark is broken by it, and by careful watching 
this can be prevented before the worm does serious harm. 
There is also a sort of mildew upon the leaves in certain years 
that does much harm, and the Chinese do not seem to have any 
way of dealing with it." 

Several insect pests are reported from India. A small brown 
weevil {Amhlyrrhinus poricoUis Boh.), the larvae of a gray- 
brown moth (Plotheia celtis Mo.), and the larvse of Thalassodes 
quadraria Guen. feed on the leaves. The larvse of Crypto- 
phlebia carpophaga Wlsm. attack the fruits. Several species 
of Arbela (notably A. tetraonis Mo.) occur as borers on the 
tree. 

It has been found in Hawaii that the dreaded Mediterranean 
fruit-fly does not attack the litchi fruit, except when the shell 
has been broken and the pulp exposed. The litchi fruit- worm, 
the larva of a tortricid moth (Cryptophlehia illepida Btl.), is 
said to have caused much damage to the fruit crop at times. 
The hemispherical scale (Saissetia hemispherica Targ.) occa- 




Plate XVII. The litchi, favorite fruit of the Chinese. 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 325 

sionally attacks weak trees. The larvae of a moth {Archips 
postvittanus Walker) sometimes injure the foliage and flowers. 
A disease which has been termed erinose, caused by mites 
of the genus Eriophyes, has been reported from Hawaii, where it 
has become serious on certain litchi trees. Spraying with a 
solution of 10 ounces nicotin sulfate and If pounds whale-oil 
soap in 50 gallons of water was found to eradicate the mites. 

Varieties. 

Since the litchi has been propagated vegetatively from ancient 
times, it is natural that many horticultural varieties should be 
grown at the present day. Most of these, however, are un- 
known to the western world. Recently they have been studied 
by Groff, and it is to be hoped that the best will be brought to 
light, and their successful introduction into the American tropics 
realized. 

The variety Loh mai chi is said to be one of the best in the 
world. It is grown in the vicinity of Canton. Haak ip is an- 
other Canton litchi said to be choice. All together thirty or forty 
kinds are reported from this region, some of them being particu- 
larly adapted for drying, others for eating fresh, and so on. 

The varieties cultivated in India are not in all instances 
clearly distinguished. The best known is Bedana (meaning 
seedless), a medium-sized fruit in which the seed is small and 
shriveled. Probably several distinct sorts are known by this 
name. McLean's, Dudhia, China, and Rose are other varietal 
names which appear in the lists of Indian nurserymen. 

The Longan 

(Euphoria longana, Lam.) 

Opinions differ regarding the value of the longan. It is 
popular among the Chinese, but Americans who have tested 
longans produced in California and Florida have not as a rule 
considered them good. Frank N. Meyer says that they are 



326 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

improved by cooking, and that preserved longans are considered 
by some superior to preserved litchis, the flavor being thought 
more delicate. 

According to Alphonse DeCandolle, the longan is a native 
of India, whence it has been introduced into the Malay Archi- 
pelago, southern China, and (recently) tropical America. It is a 
tree 30 to 40 feet high, resembling the litchi in habit and appear- 
ance. The leaves are compound, with two to five pairs of elliptic 
to lanceolate, glabrous, glossy, light green leaflets. The flowers 
are borne in terminal and axillary panicles, and are small and 
unattractive. The fruit is round, an inch or less in diameter, 
light brown in color, with a thin shell-like outer covering, and 
white flesh (aril) similar in character to that of the litchi but less 
sprightly in flavor. The single seed is dark brown and shining. 

Meyer says : " The fruit, which is naturally brown, is gen- 
erally artificially changed to a chrome-yellow. It is eaten 
fresh, canned, or dried. In the last condition one can obtain 
it at the Chinese New Year time in the most northern cities 
of the Empire. There are several varieties of longans, differing 
in size of fruit, productivity, and size of kernel. Their northern 
limit of growing seems to be, like that of the litchi, the region 
around Foochow." 

Analysis of the longan by Alice R. Thompson has shown the 
ripe fruit to contain : Total solids 17.61 per cent, protein 
1.41, total sugars 8.34, fat 0.45, and fiber, 0.63. 

In French, the longan is commonly termed ceil de dragon 
(dragon's eye). The Chinese name is spelled alternatively 
longyen, long an, lung an, lingeng, and so on. Botanical 
synonyms of Euphoria Longana are Nephelium Longana, 
Cambess., and Dimocar'pus Longan, Lour. 

In southern California and in southern Florida, the longan 
thrives and fruits abundantly if planted in situations not subject 
to severe frosts. It withstands lower temperatures than the 
litchi and is less exacting in its cultural requirements. P. D. 



THE LIT CHI AND ITS RELATIVES 327 

Barnhart, writing in the Pacific Garden, says of its culture in 
California : " We are of the opinion that the greatest success 
may only be obtained with it in the warmer foothill sections of 
the country, and that, too, beneath the sheltering arms of live 
oaks. It seems necessary to protect it from the direct sunlight 
and desiccating atmosphere of our summers, as well as from the 
frosts of winters. It requires an abundance of water during 
the summer months." It has been much more successful 
on the shallow soils of the Miami region in southern Florida 
than its relative the litchi. 

Propagation is by seed, layering, and grafting, as with the 
litchi. Higgins remarks concerning the habits of the tree: 
"The statement has been made that it is a slower grower than 
the litchi, but this certainly does not hold true under Hawaiian 
conditions, where it is a robust tree far exceeding the litchi in 
vigor and rapidity of growth. As in the case of the litchi, 
seedlings frequently are very tardy coming into bearing." In 
southern China, where the longan is extensively grown, it is said 
to require more pruning than the litchi. 

The fruit ripens somewhat later than that of the litchi, and 
is popular among the Chinese, quantities of it being sold in 
Hongkong and Canton during late summer. Doubtless some 
of the varieties cultivated in China are superior in quality of 
fruit to the seedlings which have been grown in the United 
States. It has been the general opinion of those who have 
tasted the American-grown longan that it is insipid and 
somewhat mawkish, although Barnhart considers it excellent. 

The Rambutan (Plate XX) 

{Nephelium lappaceum, L.) 

In the Malay Archipelago are found several valuable tropical 
fruits which have not yet become extensively cultivated else- 
where. The rambutan is one of them. It is grown in nearly 



328 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

every garden in Singapore and Penang, and its fruit is one of 
the most delicious of the region. It resembles the litchi in 
character. 

As seen in cultivation, the tree is 35 or 40 feet high, erect 
and stately in appearance. The compound leaves are com- 
posed of five to seven pairs of elliptic, obovate, or oblong leaflets, 
glabrate, about 4 inches long, shining and dark green above, 
paler beneath. The flower-panicles are axillary and terminal, 
loose and spreading in form, the flowers small, pubescent, the 
calyx campanulate, five- or six-cleft, the petals wanting. The 
fruits, which are produced in clusters of ten or twelve, are oval, 
about 2 inches in length, and covered with soft fleshy spines ^ 
inch long. They are crimson in color, sometimes greenish, 
yellowish, or orange-yellow. The outer covering, from which 
the spines arise, is thin and leathery, and is easily torn off, ex- 
posing the white, translucent, juicy flesh (aril) which adheres 
to the oblong, pointed, and flattened seed. The flavor is 
acidulous, somewhat suggesting that of the grape. It is 
usually relished by Europeans, though considered slightly 
inferior to its relative the litchi. 

Apparently the rambutan is well distributed throughout 
the Malay Archipelago. H. F. Macmillan says : "It is curious 
that this fruit, which is so common in the low-country of 
Ceylon and in the Straits, appears to be scarcely known in 
India, Mauritius, Madagascar, etc." It has been introduced 
into the American tropics by the United States Department of 
Agriculture, but is not yet well established there. 

The common name is taken from the Malayan word ramhut, 
meaning hair, and has reference to the long soft spines with 
which the fruit is covered. Rambustan, ramboetan, and ram- 
botang are forms sometimes used. The French spell it ram- 
boutan and sometimes call the fruit litchi chevelu (hairy litchi). 

The rambutan is eaten fresh. It has been found to contain 
about the same amount of sugar as the litchi and longan, as 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 329 

follows : Saccharose 7.8 per cent, dextrose 2.25, and levulose 
1.25. 

In climatic requirements the rambutan must be considered 
strictly tropical. It thrives in Ceylon up to elevations of 2000 
feet, which means that it does pot grow in the cooler parts of 
the island. It likes a moist hot climate and may not, therefore, 
succeed anywhere on the mainland of the United States, al- 
though there is a possibility that it might be grown in extreme 
southern Florida. It should be practicable to grow it in many 
parts of the American tropics. 

Little is known regarding the culture of the tree. It succeedsl 
on deep, rich, and moist soils, but its adaptability as regards 
soil and other conditions is not definitely understood. It is 
propagated by seed, and by air-layering in the same manner 
as the litchi; it has also been inarched successfully. Mature 
trees are productive, the bearing habits of the rambutan re- 
sembling those of the litchi. It is said that there are fifteen 
varieties, differing in color, size, and flavor, cultivated in the 
Malayan region, but they are not well known horticulturally. 

The Pulasan (Fig. 43) 
(Neyhelium mutabile, Bl.) 

In the markets of Singapore, the pulasan is sold as a variety of 
the rambutan. It is, however, a distinct species and is known 
elsewhere in the Malayan region under a different name. 

The tree, which is considered to be indigenous in Java and 
Borneo, is not well known horticulturally. The leaves are 
compound, with two to four pairs of oblong to elliptic, acumi- 
nate leaflets commonly 5 to 10 inches long, glabrous and shining 
above, glaucous beneath. The fruit is larger than that of the 
rambutan, with a stouter stem, and is borne in closely-crowded 
clusters of three to five fruits, instead of loose clusters of a 
dozen or so. The pericarp or outer covering is thick, sometimes 



330 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

f inch, and the spines are short, blunt, and stout, much swollen 
near the base ; whereas the pericarp of the rambutan is rarely 
more than | inch thick, and the spines are much longer and 
taper uniformly toward the base. The flesh of the pulasan is 
less juicy than that of the rambutan, sweeter, and of less 
sprightly flavor. The size of the seeds is about the same in 
both species. 

Other forms of the common name are kapoelasan, capulasan, 
and pulassan. 
Like its congener the rambutan, the pulasan is probably suit- 
able for cultivation only in 
moist tropical regions. It 
is not known to have been 
grown to fruiting age any- 
where in tropical America, 
but there are many places 
where it should succeed. 
It is doubtful whether it 

Fig. 43. The pulasan (Nephelium muta- -^[W (Jq SO in Florida and 

bile), a relative of the litchi which is culti- /-( i.p 

vated in the Malayan Archipelago. The Calltomia IS unquCStlOU- 

translucent, white, subacid pulp adheres ably toO COol and dry for it. 
closely to a large seed. (X 5) tt tt -r. i p 

Harry H. Boyle says or 
the pulasan in Siam : " All the trees are propagated by marcot- 
tage (air-layering), budding and grafting being unknown arts 
in Siam. The flavor of some of the varieties is delicious and 
many trees produce seedless fruit." 




The Akee (Plate XVIII) 

{Blighia sapida, Koen.) 

Like the oil palm (Elceis guineensis), now common on the 
coast of Brazil, the akee is an African plant which was brought 
to America in the days of the slave trade. According to 
William Harris, it reached Jamaica in 1778. It is now common 



THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES 331 

In that island, and is cultivated on a limited scale in other parts 
of the West Indies, as well as on the mainland of tropical 
America. In the Orient it is rare. Its native home is in tropi- 
cal West Africa. 

' On deep rich soils the tree becomes 35 or 40 feet in height. 
It is erect in habit, with an open crown and stiff branches. 
The leaves are abruptly pinnate, with three to five pairs of 
short-stalked, obovate-oblong leaflets, the upper ones 4 to 6 
inches in length, the lowest pair much shorter. The small 
flowers are borne in short axillary racemes. The sepals and 
petals are five in number, the latter greenish white in color. 
The fruit is a curious-looking capsule, about 3 inches long, 
triangular in general outline, and straw-colored to magenta-red. 
When ripe it opens along three sutures, exposing three round 
shining seeds, with a whitish fleshy body at the base of each. 
The fleshy substance (technically the arillus), resembles in 
appearance the brain of a small animal. It is firm and oily 
in texture, and has a somewhat nutty flavor. When fried in 
butter it is a delicious morsel, and it is excellent boiled with salt 
fish. It has long been believed that the akee, unless cooked, is 
poisonous. J. J. Bowrey,^ analytical chemist to the Govern- 
ment of Jamaica, found that : 

" Unripe akees if eaten freely bring on vomiting. Decaying akees 
are decidedly unwholesome, and may even be very poisonous. This is 
true of many foods. Fresh ripe akees are good and harmless food, 
rather rich it is true, but to most persons quite wholesome. There 
may be individual idiosyncrasies with regard to akee, as there are to such 
usually harmless foods as mutton, duck, pork, mushrooms, etc. The 
red membrane of the akee, so commonly believed to be poisonous, is 
perfectly harmless. If the fruit be ripe and fresh, which can be 
known by its being open, the edible portion firm, and the red part bright 
in color, it may be considered a good and safe food. But if the fruit 
be not ripe, or if there are any signs of decay, such as mouldiness or 
softening of the edible portion, or a dingy color in the ordinary red 
part, the fruit should not be eaten." 

1 Kew Bull. 1892, p. 109. 



332 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The name akee came to America from Africa along with the 
fruit itself, and is generally used (sometimes as akee-apple) in 
the British colonies where the tree is grown. In Spanish-speak- 
ing countries the usual name is seso vegetal, or vegetable brains. 
Cupania sapida, Voigt., is a botanical synonym of Blighia 
sapida, Koen. 

In tropical America the akee is grown most commonly in the 
hot moist lowlands. Since it has succeeded in southern Florida, 
however, the species cannot be considered strictly tropical in 
its requirements. When young it is susceptible to frost, but 
plants which have attained four or five years' growth have 
passed through temperatures of 26° above zero with very little 
injury. Several have been grown at Miami and Palm Beach, 
and the fruit which they have produced has been equal in every 
respect to that grown in the tropics. No large plants are known 
in California and it is doubtful whether the species will succeed 
anywhere in that state. It thrives on deep loamy soils with 
abundant moisture, but makes satisfactory (though slow) 
growth on the shallow sandy soils of southeastern Florida. It 
has come into bearing at Miami when about five years old. 

Propagation is usually by seed, but vegetative means should 
prove successful. No horticultural varieties have been estab- 
lished. 

The Mamoncillo 
(Melicocca hijuga, L.) 

Unlike its oriental relatives the litchi, the longan, and the 
rambutan, the mamoncillo is strictly an American plant. It is 
cultivated in the West Indies and on the neighboring mainland 
of South America, in which latter region it is considered to be 
indigenous. In Porto Rico and Cuba it is a popular fruit among 
the poorer classes. 

In habit and foliage the species resembles the soapberry 



THE LIT CHI AND ITS RELATIVES 333 

(Sapindus Saponaria). The tree, which grows slowly, is erect, 
shapely, 30 to 40 or sometimes as much as 60 feet high. The 
leaves are compound, with two pairs of elliptic-lanceolate, 
acute, glabrous leaflets, the lower pair about half the size of the 
upper. The small flowers, which are produced in short panicles, 
are followed by clusters of smooth round fruits about the size 
of plums. The outer covering of these fruits is thick and 
leathery, and green on the surface ; it incloses a large round seed 
surrounded by soft, yellowish, translucent, juicy pulp. The 
flavor is said to be usually sweet and pleasant, but in many 
varieties it is acid, especially if the fruit is not fully ripe. 

The generic name Melicocca means honey-berry, and is 
intended to refer to the flavor of the fruit ; but some of the 
mamoncillos grown in Cuba are frequently as sour as limes. 
Indeed, one of the common names for this fruit in southern 
Florida is Spanish-lime ; it is also there called genip. Mamon- 
cillo is the Cuban name. In Porto Rico it is known as genipe. 
In the French islands this same name (supposedly) is current, 
in the form quenette or knepe. 

P. W. Reasoner says : " The fruit markets well in Key West, 
and there are a number of fine bearing trees in that place, and 
on the other islands. It is worthy of more attention all over 
south Florida." At Miami and Palm Beach it grows well, 
but some of the trees do not bear fruit. The mature plant with- 
stands several degrees of frost without injury. It does not 
require rich soil, nor is it particularly exacting in other ways. 
So far as is known, it has never been grown to fruiting stage in 
California. 

The mamoncillo has been propagated up to the present 
time exclusively by seed. It will probably lend itself, however, 
to the vegetative methods which are employed with its relatives. 
No horticultural varieties have been established. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 

The sapotaceous fruits are so named from the family Sapota- 
cefie, to which they belong, and which in turn is named from the 
old generic name Sapota (now represented in Achras Sapota, 
the sapodilla). The species are mostly tropical, although a few 
species of little economic importance are native in the United 
States north of the Florida Keys. 

The Sapodilla (Plate XIX) 

(Achras Sapota, L.) 

Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo, who was one of the first 
Europeans to study the plants of the New World, called the 
sapodilla the best of all fruits. More recently, Thomas Firm- 
inger, an English horticulturist who lived in India, wrote of it 
that "a more luscious, cool, and agreeable fruit is not to be met 
with in this or perhaps any country in the world"; while the 
poetic French botanist, Michel Etienne Descourtilz, has char- 
acteristically described it as having "the sweet perfumes of 
honey, jasmine, and lily of the valley." 

While it is scarcely possible to indorse the enthusiastic 
opinion of Oviedo, the sapodilla must be considered one of the 
best fruits of tropical America. It cannot vie, perhaps, with 
the pineapple or the cherimoya, but it is deservedly held in 
great esteem by the inhabitants of many tropical countries. 

The tree is evergreen and stately, sometimes attaining a 
height of 50 to 75 feet^ with a dense rounded or conical crown. 

334 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 335 

The wood is hard and durable ; in fact, hntels believed to be 
made from it are found in the ruins of Tikal (Central America), 
dated 9.15.10.0.0 (Maya chronology) or470 a.d. The branches 
often extend from the trunk horizontally. They are tough and 
pliable, which makes the sapodilla more resistant to cyclones 
and hurricanes than many other tropical fruit-trees. The bark 
contains a milky latex known commercially as chicle. This 
product is secured by tapping the trunk, and is exported in 
large quantities from southern Mexico and Central America 
to the United States, where it is used as the basis of chewing- 
gum. The leaves are entire or emarginate, ovate-elliptic to 
elliptic-lanceolate in outline, thick, stiff, shining, and 2 to 5 
inches long. The small flowers are produced in the leaf-axils 
toward the ends of the branchlets ; the calyx is composed of 
six small, ovate sepals, and the corolla is white, tubular, lobu- 
late, with six stamens opposite the lobules. The ovary is 
ten- to twelve-celled, each cell containing one ovule. The 
fruit is variable in form, but commonly is round, oval, or conical, 
and 2 to 3^ inches in diameter. The thin skin is rusty brown 
and somewhat scurfy, giving the fruit a striking resemblance to 
an Irish potato. The flesh in the ripe fruit is yellow-brown, 
translucent, soft, sweet, and delicious, but when immature 
it contains tannin and a milky latex, so that it must not be 
eaten until fully ripe. The flavor has been likened to that of 
pears and brown sugar together ; it is rich, slightly fragrant, 
and very pleasing to those who like sweet fruits. The seeds 
vary from none to ten or twelve and are hard, black, shining, 
obovate, flattened, and about f inch long. They are easily 
separated from the flesh and give little trouble in eating the 
fruit. 

The sapodilla is native to tropical America. Henry Pittier 
considers it indigenous in Mexico south of the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec, in Guatemala, and possibly in Salvador and 
northern Honduras. It is particularly abundant in the low- 



336 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

lands of Tabasco, Chiapas, and the western part of Yucatan, 
throughout which region the wild trees are tapped for chicle gum. 
From its native home it has been carried around the world. 
It is grown on the western coast of India and in Bengal, and, 
according to H. F. Macmillan, was introduced into Ceylon 
about 1802, but it has not become widely cultivated in that 
island. One meets with the tree in some parts of Africa, and 
Gerrit P. Wilder says it is common in the Hawaiian Islands. 
Throughout tropical America, it is abundant from southern 
Brazil to Florida. 

In California the sapodilla has not been a success. Occasional 
trees in favored locations have lived for several years, but they 
have never reached the fruiting stage. Frosts have eventually 
killed most of them, and even the coolness of California nights 
has proved unfavorable to their natural development. In Florida 
the plant's cultivation is limited to the east coast from Palm 
Beach (or perhaps farther north) southward to Key West, and 
on the west coast as far north as the Manatee River. Mature 
trees in that state have passed uninjured through temperatures 
of 28° above zero, according to P. W. Reasoner. On the Florida 
Keys the sapodilla is one of the favorite fruits. 

The common name sapodilla, by which the fruit is known in 
Florida, is taken from the Spanish zapotillo, meaning small 
zapote. In Mexico the usual name is chicozapote (often abbre- 
viated to chico) ; this is derived from the Nahuatl tzicozapotl, 
or gum zapotl. In Mexico and other Spanish-speaking countries 
it is also called nispero, a name which properly belongs to the 
European medlar, Mespilus germanica. The English have 
formed from this the term naseberry, which is current in the 
West Indies and India. In the latter country it is called in 
Marathi chiku. The Maya name yd is used in Yucatan. In 
southern Brazil one form of the fruit is called sapoti, another 
sapota, while at Para the name is sapotilha. In German it is 
called hreiapfel, and in French sapotille. The botanical 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 337 

synonymy is rather extensive : Achras Sapota, L., Sapota 
Achras, Mill., and Sapota zapotilla, Coville, are sometimes 
used. 

The sapodilla is preeminently a dessert fruit. Rarely is 
it cooked or preserved in any way, although in Cuba and Brazil 
it is often made into a sherbet. According to Carl Wehmer ^ it 
contains about 14 per cent of sugar, of which 7.02 is saccharose, 
3.7 dextrose, and 3.4 levulose. It also contains a small 
amount of acid and about 1 per cent of ash. 

Although tropical in character, the sapodilla does not require 
a high degree of humidity nor entire freedom from frost. If 
liberally irrigated it can be grown in regions where the atmos- 
pheric humidity is low. The plant while young is injured 
by temperatures below freezing, but when mature it withstands 
27° or 28° above zero. Although it prefers a rich sandy loam, 
it thrives on light clay and also on the shallow sandy soil 
underlaid with soft limestone which is found on the lower east 
coast of Florida. Indeed, its aptitude for rocky and forbidding 
situations on the Florida Keys is remarkable. It is said to grow 
well in India both on red sandy soil along the seashore and in the 
black alluvial land of the Dekkan. 

It is the custom in India to plant sapodilla trees 15 to 20 feet 
apart. This is too close for the best results, particularly if 
the soil is rich and deep so that the tree grows to large size ; 
30 feet apart is probably close enough on good soils. V. N. 
Gokhale, writing in the Poona Agriculture College Magazine 
(1911), reports that in India the young plants are set in pits 1 
foot wide and 2 to 3 feet deep in which a quantity of sheep- 
manure has been mixed with the soil, and that the mature trees 
are regularly supplied with manure two or three times a year. 

Little attention has yet been given to pruning. Since the 
tree is of slow compact growth, it will probably require nothing 
more than the removal of an occasional unshapely branch. In 
1 Die Pflanzenstoffe. 



338 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

southern Florida it thrives under the same cultural attention as 
citrus fruits. 

The sapodilla is usually propagated by seed, but the varia- 
tion among seedlings in productiveness as well as in quality, 
size, and shape of fruit necessitates some asexual means of 
propagation if the most desirable forms are to be perpetuated. 
Edward Simmonds has shown in Florida that the species can be 
budded in the same manner as the mango. Grafting and layer- 
ing have been practiced in India. 

Seeds, if kept dry, will retain their viability for several years. 
They should be sown in flats of light sandy soil, and covered to 
the depth of | inch. In warm weather germination takes place 
within a month. The young seedlings, after they have made 
their second leaves, may be potted off and carried along thus 
for a year or two, when they will be large enough to be set out 
in the open ground. Their growth is slow. If they are to be 
budded they should be planted in nursery rows which are 3 
feet apart, and 18 inches apart in the row. In southern Florida, 
May has proved to be a good month for budding; in strictly 
tropical regions it can probably be done at any time of the year, 
provided the stock-plants are in active growth. Budwood 
should be chosen from young branchlets which have begun to 
lose their greenish color and assume a brownish tinge. It should 
be examined carefully to ascertain that the axillary buds or 
"eyes" are well developed. Shield-budding is the method 
employed, the details being practically the same as in budding 
the mango. After making the incision in the stock, the bud 
should be inserted promptly, since the latex soon collects 
around the wound and renders insertion difficult. Waxed tape 
should be used for wrapping. After three or four weeks, the 
stock may be headed back and the wrap loosened, leaving the 
eye exposed so that it may start into growth. 

A. C. Hartless, superintendent of the Government Botanical 
Gardens at Saharanpur, India, has found that the sapodilla 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 339 

can be inarched and cleft-grafted on Mimusops Kauki, L. 
Propagated in this manner the tree is dwarfed and bears at an 
earlier age than when grown on its own roots ; it is believed 
also to be more productive. V. N. Gokhale says that propaga- 
tion in western India is by seeds and layering. Plants obtained 
from layers are believed to be more vigorous than those from 
seed. Eight to ten layers can be made each year from a bearing 
tree, choosing the branches close to the ground. 

Seedling sapodillas rarely come into bearing until six to eight 
years of age, even when grown under favorable conditions. 
They usually fruit heavily, and often produce two crops a 
year, one being much lighter, however, than the other. Due 
to this habit, together with the natural variation in season 
among seedling trees, ripe sapodillas are to be found in the 
markets of tropical America almost throughout the year. 

Experiments have shown that the fruit can be shipped success- 
fully and with little care in packing. The skin is thin and 
delicate and the fully ripe fruit is injured very easily; but if 
picked while still hard or "tree ripe, " it does not begin to soften 
for several days. Sapodillas have been shipped from the 
Florida Keys to New York, packed in tomato-crates which hold 
six small baskets, each basket carrying six good-sized fruits. 
For local consumption, or for shipping short distances, the 
common procedure in Florida is to pull the fruits from the 
trees and simply throw them into boxes or baskets, in which 
they are carried to market, the ripe ones being picked out daily. 

The fruit-flies (Trypetidse) are serious pests of the sapodilla 
in some regions, their larvae infesting the ripe fruit and render- 
ing it unfit for consumption. Ceratitis capitata, Wied., the 
Mediterranean fruit-fly, and Anastrepha ludens, Loew., the 
Mexican fruit-fly, are two of the most troublesome species. 
The tree is attacked by very few insect or fungous enemies. 

Seedlings differ in productiveness, ripening season, and in 
size, shape, and character of their fruits. Those which are 



340 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

unusually choice or valuable should be propagated by budding, 
grafting, or layering, and established as named varieties. 
Occasionally a seedless kind is found, or one whose fruits are 
very large, weighing a pound or even more. Differences in 
flavor and quality of fruit are also noticeable. There are not 
as yet any named varieties known in the trade. 

The Sapote (Fig. 44) 

{Calocarpum mammosum, Pierre) 

The sapote is one of the important fruits of the Central 
American lowlands. It furnishes to the Indians a nourishing 
and agreeable food, obtainable during a certain part of the year 

in considerable abundance. 
Cook and Collins remark : " It 
was this fruit that kept Cortes 
and his army alive on their 
famous march from Mexico City 
to Honduras." 

In the hot and humid low- 
lands the sapote becomes a large 

Fig. 44. The sapote {Calocarpum ^ ^f^^^ gg f^^^ j^j i ^j^j^ ^ 

thick trunk and stout branches. 
The Indians, when clearing the forest in order to plant coffee 
or other crops, usually spare the sapote trees they encounter, 
for they regard the fruit highly. The foliage is abundant, and 
light green in color. The leaves, which are clustered toward the 
ends of the stout branchlets, are obovate to oblanceolate in 
outline, broadest toward the apex, and 4 to 10 inches long. 
The small flowers are produced in great numbers along the 
branchlets. The sepals are eight to ten, imbricate, in several 
series; the corolla is tubular, whitish, with five lobes. The 
stamens are five and the ovary is hairy, five-celled, with one 
ovule in each cell. The fruit is elliptic or oval in form, com- 




THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 341 

monly 3 to 6 inches long, russet-brown in color, the skin 
thick and woody and the surface somewhat scurfy. The flesh 
is firm, salmon-red to reddish brown in color, and finely granular 
in texture. The large elliptic seed can be lifted out of the 
fruit as easily as that of an avocado; it is hard, brown, and 
shining, except on the ventral surface, which is whitish and 
somewhat rough. To one unaccustomed to the exceedingly 
sweet fruits of the tropics, the flavor of the sapote is at first 
somewhat cloying because of its richness and lack of acidity. 
When made into a sherbet, as is done in Habana, it is sure to be 
relished at first trial. Inferior or improperly ripened sapotes 
will be found to have a pronounced squash-like flavor. 

Pittier, whose studies of the sapotaceous fruits have done 
much to clear away the botanical confusion in which they have 
been involved, considers the sapote to be indigenous to Central 
America. Outside of its native area it is grown in the West 
Indies, in South America, and in the Philippines. In Cuba it 
is particularly abundant and the fruit highly esteemed. Though 
it has been planted in southeastern Florida it has never suc- 
ceeded in that region. The limiting factor there seems to be 
unfavorable soil rather than temperature, while in California 
it has always succumbed to the cold, even when grown in the 
most protected situations. 

In the British W^est Indies the sapote is called mammee- 
sapota, marmalade-plum, and marmalade-fruit. In the French 
West Indies it is known as sapote and cjrosse sapote. In Cuba it 
is called mamey Colorado and, less commonly, mamey zapote. 
Throughout its native area, southern Mexico and Central 
America, it is known in Spanish as zapote (from the Nahuatl or 
Aztec name tzapotl) and this name is used also in Ecuador and 
Colombia. In the Philippines the term is chico-mamey . The 
more important botanical synonyms are : Achras mammosa, L., 
Lucuma mammosa, Gaertn., Vitellaria mammosa, Radlk., and 
Achradelpha mammosa, Cook. The name mamey, improperly 



342 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

applied to this fruit, results in its being confused with Mammea 
americana, L. 

The Indians of Central America commonly eat the sapote 
out of hand, but it is occasionally made into a rich preserve 
and it may be employed in other waj^s. In Cuba it is used as a 
"filler" in making guava-cheese, and a thick jam, called crema 
de mamey Colorado, is also prepared from it. The seed is an 
article of commerce in Central America, where the large kernel 
is roasted and used to mix with cacao in making chocolate. 

The tree is tropical in its requirements. In Guatemala it 
is most abundant at elevations from sea-level to 2000 feet; 
at 3000 feet it is still quite common, but at 4000 feet it is rarely 
seen. At higher elevations it is injured by the cold and makes 
very slow growth. It thrives on heavy soils, such as the clays 
and clay-loams of Guatemala. It is believed in Florida that 
the plant does not like a soil which is rich in lime, and that for 
this reason it has failed to succeed at Miami and other points in 
the state where conditions otherwise seem to be favorable. 
P. W. Reasoner considered it to be as frost-resistant as the 
sapodilla. 

Seedlings start bearing when seven or eight years old if 
grown under favorable conditions, and when of good size yield 
regularly and abundantly. The fruits are picked when mature, 
and laid away in a cool place to ripen, which requires about a 
week. If shipped as soon as picked from the tree, they can be 
sent to northern markets without difficulty. Sapotes from Cuba 
and Central America are often seen in the markets of Tampa 
and New Orleans. The season of ripening extends over a 
period of two or three months, usually beginning about August 
in the West Indies and Central America. Differences in eleva- 
tion, and consequently in climate of course affect the time of 
ripening. 

All of the sapote trees in tropical America are seedlings. 
Neither budding nor grafting has yet been used with this 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 343 

species, so far as is known. The seeds, which cannot be kept 
long, germinate more readily if the thick husk is removed 
before planting. They should be placed in sand or light soil, 
laid on their sides, and scarcely covered. When the young 
plants are six or eight inches high, they may be transferred 
to four- or five-inch pots. Their growth is rapid at first, but 
much slower after they have exhausted the food reserves stored 
in the large seed. It is probable that budding will prove as 
successful with the sapote as it has with the sapodilla. Seed- 
lings differ greatly in the size, shape, and quality of their fruits. 
The best one should be propagated by some vegetative means. 

The Green Sapote (Plate XX) 
(Calocarpum viride, Pittier) 

While greatly superior in flavor to its congener the sapote 
(C. mammosum) , the green sapote is much more limited in its 
distribution. It is common in the Guatemalan highlands and 
is found also in Honduras and (rarely) in Costa Rica. Else- 
where it is not known, but it deserves to be cultivated through- 
out the tropics. 

In habit and general appearance the tree greatly resembles 
the sapote, from which it can be distinguished (according to 
Pittier) "by the smaller leaves, downy and white beneath, 
the smaller and differently shaped sepals, the shorter staminodes 
and stamens, the latter with broadly ovate anthers, and above 
all the comparatively small, green, and thin-skinned fruit and 
the smaller, ovate seed." It is most abundant in northern 
Guatemala (the Alta Verapaz), where it grows usually at 
elevations of 4000 to 6000 feet. Unlike its relative the sapote, 
it does not thrive in the hot lowlands. The lower limit of its 
cultivation is approximately 3000 feet, the upper between 6000 
and 7000 feet. 

The fruit, which is known in Guatemala as injerto (Spanish) 



344 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

and yash-tul (Kekchi, green sapote), is much prized by the 
Indians of the Verapaz. The flavor is similar to that of the 
sapote, but more dehcate, and the flesh is finer and smoother 
in texture. The largest fruits are nearly 5 inches long, tur- 
binate to elliptic in outline, and brownish green to pale 
yellowish green in color; the skin thin, almost membranous, 
and easily broken. The flesh is pale red-brown in color, 
melting, sweet, and somewhat juicy. The seeds are commonly 
one or two, elliptic in form, and about 2 inches long. Usually 
the fruit is eaten fresh, but in some parts of Guatemala a pre- 
serve is prepared from it, similar to that made from the sapote. 

The tree is productive, but has the disadvantage of not coming 
into bearing earlier than eight or ten years from seed. It is 
not systematically cultivated, but is met with in dooryards 
and around cultivated fields. The fruits are in great demand 
in the markets of Guatemalan towns. They ripen from October 
or November (depending on elevation) to February. When 
picked from the tree they are hard and can be carried long 
distances without injury, but after they have softened and are 
ready for eating they must be handled carefully, since the skin 
is thin and easily broken. 

This species has been planted recently in California and 
Florida. It is more likely to succeed in the latter state than 
the sapote, since it is somewhat more frost-resistant. It is 
doubtful, however, whether it will survive temperatures below 
27° or 28° above zero. Seed-propagation is the only method 
which has been employed up to the present time. 

The Stak-Apple (Fig. 45) 

(Chrysophyllum Cainito, L.) 

In Cuba, Jamaica, and several other tropical American 
countries, the star-apple is a common dooryard tree and its 
fruit is held in much the same estimation as the sapote, the 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 



345 



sapodilla, and the sugar-apple. For its ornamental value 
alone it merits cultivation. Charles Kingsley, in his brief 
account of West Indian fruits, refers to the beauty of this plant. 
"And what is the next," he asks, after mentioning some of the 
trees seen on one of his rambles, "like an evergreen peach, 
shedding from the under side of every leaf a golden light, — 
call it not shade ? A star-apple." 

On the deep rich soils of Cuba the tree sometimes reaches 
50 feet in height, although in southern Florida it rarely exceeds 
30 feet. The leaves are oval or oblong, about 4 inches in length, 
deep green and glossy above, 
and golden-brown, with a sheen 
like that of satin, beneath. 
The flowers are small and in- 
conspicuous, purplish white in 
color. The fruit is commonly 
round, sometimes oblate, and 2 
to 4 inches in diameter. The 
surface is smooth, somewhat 
glossy, dull purple in some vari- 
eties, light green in others. On 
cutting the fruit transversely, 
it is found to be differentiated 
into two kinds of flesh ; directly 
under the thin tenacious skin is a layer of soft, somewhat granu- 
lar flesh, concolorous with the skin, and not very juicy ; inclosed 
by this are eight translucent whitish segments in which the 
seeds are embedded. When the fruit is halved thus, trans- 
versely, these cut segments present a star-like appearance, 
whence the common name. Both kinds of flesh are sweet, 
entirely lacking in acidity, with the characteristic sapotaceous 
flavor. Normally there is one seed in each segment, but fre- 
quently several are aborted, leaving three to five in the fruit. 
They are ovate to elliptic in outline, flattened, f inch long. 




Fig. 45. The star-apple (Chryso- 
phyllum Cainito), a popular fruit in 
Cuba. It is green or purple in color, 
and the flesh is melting, sweet, and 
pleasantly flavored. (X about 5) 



346 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

hard, brown, and glossy. The appearance of a halved star- 
apple is strikingly suggestive of that of the mangosteen. 

The fruit is usually eaten fresh. In Jamaica it is sometimes 
made into preserves, and also (according to P. W. Reasoner) 
into a mixture somewhat cryptically called "matrimony," 
which is prepared by scooping out the inside pulp and adding 
it to a glass of sour orange juice. An analysis made in Hawaii 
by Alice R. Thompson shows the ripe fruit to contain : Total 
solids 11.47 per cent, ash 0.39, acids 0.12, protein 2.33, total 
sugars 4.40, fat 1.38, and fiber 0.85. 

The tree is wild in the West Indies and in Central America. 
It is cultivated in the same area and also in South America, 
Mexico, Florida, and to a limited extent in Hawaii and a few 
other countries. According to H. F. Macmillan it was intro- 
duced into Ceylon in 1802, but it is not commonly grown any- 
where in the Orient, so far as is known. In the English colonies 
it is known almost invariably as star-apple; in the French 
colonies (and sometimes in Cuba) it is called caimite; while in 
most Spanish-speaking countries the word is caimito. 

The plant is tropical in its requirements. P. W. Reasoner 
notes : " When small, the tree is not apt to sprout up again if 
killed back by frost, and it is perhaps somewhat more tender 
than the sapodilla." Old trees are to be found at Miami and 
Palm Beach, Florida, which proves that the species is suffi- 
ciently hardy to grow in the southern part of that state. So far 
as is known, no plants have ever grown to fruiting size in Cali- 
fornia, although they have been planted in the most protected 
situations. The star-apple likes a humid atmosphere with 
relatively high temperatures throughout the year. Apparently 
it is not particular in regard to soil ; it grows well both on the 
shallow sandy soils of southeastern Florida and on the deep clay 
loams of Cuba. 

Propagation is usually by seed. Since there is much differ- 
ence among seedlings, however, it will be desirable to employ 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 347 

some asexual means of propagation in order to perpetuate as 
varieties any choice kinds which originate. Budding will 
probably prove satisfactory. It is reported that cuttings can 
be grown, if they are made from well-ripened shoots and placed 
over strong moist heat. Seeds retain their viability for several 
months, are easily transported through the mails, and should 
be sown in light sandy loam. 

Some trees yield heavy crops of fruit, while many others 
are shy bearers. The ripening season in the West Indies is 
April and May. The fruits are not good unless allowed to re- 
main on the tree until fully ripe; if picked when immature 
they are astringent and contain a sticky white latex. 

Two races are common, one green-fruited and the other 
purple-fruited. They are not known to differ in flavor or other 
characteristics except color. 

The Canistel 
(Lucuma nervosa, A. DC.) 

Opinions differ regarding the value of the canistel. By some 
it is considered a delicious fruit ; others find it too sweet and its 
musky flavor unpleasant. It is popular among residents of the 
Florida Keys and in Cuba. In the opinion of the author it is 
certainly not so good as the green sapote, the star-apple, or the 
abiu. 

The tree, which reaches 15 to 25 feet in height, is commonly 
slender in habit, but sometimes broad and stiffly erect. It is of 
handsome appearance and for this reason is often planted in 
dooryards. The leaves are oblong-obovate to oblanceolate 
in outline, 4 to 8 inches long, glabrous, and bright green in 
color. The small flowers are produced upon the young wood 
in clusters of two to five. The fruit is round to ovoid in form, 
frequently pointed at the apex, orange-yellow and 2 to 4 
inches long. The skin is membranous and the bright orange 



348 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

flesh soft and mealy in texture, resembling in appearance the 
yolk of a hard-boiled egg. The flavor is rich and so sweet 
as almost to be cloying, and is somewhat musky in char- 
acter. The seeds, usually two or three in number (although 
the ovary is five-celled), are oval, about an inch long, hard, 
dark brown, and shining, except on the pale brown ventral 
surface. 

So far as is known, the canistel is not cultivated commercially 
in any country, but it is grown as a garden tree in Cuba and 
southern Florida. The Cuban name canistel is presumably 
from the Maya kaniste; in Florida the names ti-es and egg- 
fruit are generally used. Botanically the species is often listed 
as Lucuma rivicola var. angustifolia, Miq. 

The fruit, which in Florida matures from December to March, 
is eaten fresh. It is taken from the tree when mature and laid 
in the house to complete its ripening. Within three or four 
days it is soft and ready for eating. 

The tree is fufly as hardy as the sapodilla, and of similar 
cultural requirements. It grows in south Florida on the Keys 
and as far north as Palm Beach on the east coast and Punta 
Gorda on the west coast. P. W. Reasoner wrote in 1887 : 
"Previous to the 'freeze' a specimen had been growing in 
Tampa for many years, which, after many discouragements by 
frost, finally produced fruit a few years ago." So far as known, 
the tree has never grown to fruiting size in California. In regard 
to soil it does not seem to be particular ; it grows well on the 
heavy clay lands of Cuba and upon some of the poorest and most 
shallow soils of southern Florida. It shares with the sapodilla 
the ability to grow in apparently very unfavorable situations 
on the Florida Keys. 

Propagation is usually by seed, but budding will doubtless 
prove successful. The husks should be removed from the 
seeds before they are planted. Though not a rapid grower, 
the tree comes into bearing when three to five years old. 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 



349 



"While some trees produce fruit abundantly, others are poor 
bearers. As usual, there is much variation also in the size 
and quality of the fruits borne by different seedlings. 



The Abiu (Fig. 46) 
(Pouteria Caimito, Radlk.) 

Although the abiu is one of the best of the sapotaceous fruits, 
it is not so widely cultivated as several other species. It 
greatly resembles the canistel in habit of 
growth and in foliage, but is easily distin- 
guished from it by its light yellow fruit with 
white flesh. The tree reaches 15 or 20 feet 
in height. The leaves are obovate to lanceo- 
late in outline, 4 to 8 inches long, acute, 
glabrous, and bright green. The fruit is 
ovate-elliptic (occasionally almost round) 
in form, 2 to 4 inches long, and bright 
yellow in color, with skin thick and tough. 
Surrounding the two or three large oblong 
seeds is the translucent flesh, which in flavor 
resembles the sapodilla but is of different 
texture. Until fully ripe it contains a milky 
latex which coagulates on exposure to the air 
and sticks to the lips in a troublesome 
manner, 

Alphonse DeCandolle says of this species : 
" It has been transported from Peru, where 
it is cultivated, to Ega on the Amazon river, 
and to Para, where it is commonly called ahi 
or ahiu. Ruiz and Pavon say it is wild in 
the warm regions of Peru, and at the foot of the Andes." 
Jacques Huber reports that its culture is now extensive at Para 
and elsewhere in the Amazon Valley. It is a common fruit 




Fig. 46. The abiu 
{Pouteria Caimito), 
one of the best of the 
sapotaceous fruits. 
It is cultivated in 
Peru and Brazil, 
rarely elsewhere. 
The skin is yellow, 
the flesh whitish, 
melting, and sweet. 
(Xi) 



350 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

at Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, but outside of Brazil and Peru 
is little known. Recently it has been introduced into the 
United States, and should prove sujSiciently hardy for cultiva- 
tion in southern Florida, although probably it is too tender 
for any part of California. From its abundance in Para it can 
be judged that it delights in a moist climate, uniformly warm 
throughout the year. It does well at Rio de Janeiro, however, 
where the weather is cool during part of the year. 

Lucuma Caimito, Roem., is a synonym of Pouteria Caimito, 
Radlk. Because of its specific name caimito, this plant is 
sometimes confused with the West Indian Chrysophyllum 
Cainito (star-apple, see above), which is commonly known in 
Spanish as caimito. According to Pittier, its name in the Cauca 
Valley of Colombia is caimo. 

The tree's cultural requirements are similar to those of the 
canistel. The Brazilians say that a soil rich in humus is the 
most suitable. Propagation is usually by seeds, but such vege- 
tative means as budding and grafting should be successful. 
Huber reports that there are many seedling varieties at Para, 
differing in the form and size of the leaves as well as in the fruits. 
The latter are sometimes round, sometimes elongated ; in some 
the flesh is firm and in others soft and mucilaginous ; some are 
insipid in flavor while others are very sweet and pleasant. 

The Yellow Sapote 

(iMCuma salicifolia, HBK.) 

Both in foliage and fruit the yellow sapote closely resembles 
the canistel, but its fruit is, perhaps, slightly the better of the 
two. It is a small tree, attaining 25 feet in height, and usually 
of slender erect growth. The leaves are lanceolate, acute at 
the base and obtuse at the tip, 4 to 7 inches long, and light green 
in color. The small whitish or greenish flowers are solitary or 
in pairs in the leaf-axils. The fruit, commonly slender and 




Plate XVIII. Foliage and fruits of the akee (Blighia sapida). 



THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS 351 

extended into a long point at the apex, is 4 to 5 inches long, and 
orange-yellow in color. The skin is thin and delicate and the 
pulp soft and mealy, of the consistency and color of the yolk 
of a hard-boiled egg. In flavor it resembles the canistel. 
The seed is slender, nearly 2 inches long, light brown and glossy 
except on the whitish ventral surface. 

The yellow sapote is most abundant in Mexico, but according 
to Pittier is found also in Panama and Costa Rica. The 
common names in Mexico are zapote borracho and zapote 
amarillo. The species is cultivated in that country from sea- 
level to elevations of 6000 feet. The fruit, which is eaten fresh, 
ripens in autumn and winter and is often seen in the markets. 

While tropical in its requirements, the tree can be grown in 
regions which are subject to cool weather in part of the year. 
It is doubtful, however, whether it will stand more frost than 
its congener the canistel. In Mexico it grows on both light and 
heavy soils and in regions which are moist as well as in those 
which are comparatively dry. It has been propagated only 
by seed, but should lend itself to bud-propagation. As is 
common the fruits of different seedlings vary in form, size, 
and other characteristics. 

The Lucmo 

{Lucuma obovata, HBK.) 

Pittier has recently called attention to this species, which has 
been cultivated in Peru since ancient times. It is a tree 25 
to 35 feet high, with a dense rounded crown. The leaves, 
which are in bunches at the ends of the branchlets, are elliptic- 
ovate in outline, acute at the base, dark green above and paler 
or rusty below. The flowers are solitary or sometimes two 
or three together in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is round 
or ovate in form, about 3 inches long, green externally, with 
yellow flesh of mealy texture. The seeds are one to five in 



352 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

number (commonly two), flattened, and the size of chestnuts. 
The tree is thought to be a native of the maritime provinces 
of Chile and Peru. A few cultivated specimens have been 
seen in Costa Rica, but the species is not commonly grown 
outside its native region. It flowers and fruits throughout 
the year. The fruits must be stored in straw or chaff for 
several days after gathering before they are ready for eating. 
This species is believed to be represented by casts found in 
the graves of the ancient Peruvians. From the common 
name lucmo (sometimes lucumo) the generic name Lucuma is 
taken. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 

The genus Diospyros comprises about 200 species, mostly 
tropical and subtropical. One of them is the native persimmon 
{D. virginiana), which reaches as far north as Connecticut. 
The oriental kinds are becoming prominent fruits in the lower 
part of the eastern United States. Diospyros is the largest 
genus of the Ebony family, which is closely allied to Sapotacese. 
This genus and others furnish the ebony wood of commerce. 

The Kaki or Japanese Persimmon (Plate XXI) 
(Diospyros Kaki, L. f.) 

The Japanese, who cultivate more than 800 varieties of the 
kaki, consider it one of their best fruits. The Chinese also 
value it highly and devote large areas to its production. Al- 
though it has been grown on a small scale in southern France 
for nearly a century, it is not believed to have reached the 
United States until the time of Commodore Perry's visit to 
Japan in 1856, and it was only in 1870 (or thereabouts) that 
grafted trees of superior varieties were first brought to this 
country. 

Much attention has recently been devoted to the kaki, and 
it seems probable that it will assume an important position 
among the orchard-fruits of the cotton-belt and of California. 
If it does so, credit for its establishment on such a basis will 
be due largely to the United States Department of Agriculture 
as having introduced into this country the best Chinese and 
2 a 353 



354 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Japanese sorts, and to H. H. Hume -of Florida for his investi- 
gations of cultural problems. The name of Frank N. Meyer, 
late agricultural explorer for the Department of Agriculture, 
will be remembered by horticulturists in connection with the 
introduction of Chinese varieties. 

The kaki is a deciduous tree growing up to 40 feet in height 
(though there are dwarf varieties which remain smaller than 
this), and having usually a round open crown. The leaves 
are ovate-elliptic, oblong-ovate, or even obovate in outline, 
acuminate at the apex, glabrous above and finely pubescent 
beneath, and 3 to 7 inches long. While it has usually been 
supposed that the kaki is dioecious, or rarely polygamous, 
Hume ^ has shown that a single tree may produce three kinds of 
flowers, perfect, staminate, and pistillate, in varying combina- 
tions. All of these are borne upon the current season's growth 
and open shortly after the shoots and leaves are developed. 
Staminate flowers are borne in three-flower cymes in the leaf- 
axils ; the calyx and corolla are four-lobed and the latter has 
sixteen to twenty-four stamens inserted upon it in two rows. 
The pistillate flowers are solitary and axillary and have a large 
leaf-like calyx, a four-parted light yellow corolla, eight abortive 
stamens, and a flattened or globose, eight-celled ovary sur- 
mounted by a short four-parted style and much-branched 
stigma. Perfect flowers are intermediate in character between 
the staminate and the pistillate, and are most commonly asso- 
ciated with the former. Hume says : " Up to this time they 
have not been discovered on any varieties of the fixed pistillate- 
flowering type. In other words, it appears that the perfect 
flowers are a development from the staminate form and not 
from the pistillate form." It may be observed that the kaki 
corresponds in this respect to the papaya, in which perfect 
flowers are sometimes developed on trees which are normally 
staminate but never on those which are pistillate. 

1 Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., XXII, 5, 1913. 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 355 

The fruit is oblate to slender conic in form, and from 1 to 
3 inches in diameter. It has a thin membranous skin orange- 
yellow to reddish orange in color; soft (sometimes almost 
liquid) orange-colored pulp of sweet and pleasant flavor; and 
occasionally as many as eight elliptic, flattened, dark brown 
seeds, although there are frequently not more than half that 
number, and seedless fruits are of common occurrence. 

The kaki was formerly thought a native of Japan, but it is 
now understood that it was originally confined to China, whence 
it was carried to Japan several centuries ago. Hume believes 
that the cultivated kakis may be derived from more than one 
wild species. This theory was suggested by the different 
reactions of certain varieties to the stimulus of pollination. 
After describing these reactions ^ he asks : 

"Why is it that D. kaki presents these peculiar character- 
istics? Why is it, for instance, that Tsuru is always light 
fleshed whether the fruit contains seeds or not, while Yemon 
is light fleshed when seedless and dark fleshed when seedy ? Is 
it not likely that D. kaki is not a true species but rather a 
mixture of two or more species, hybridized and grown under 
cultivation for centuries? Is it not possible that the present 
cultivated varieties known under the name of D. kaki are 
derived from two distinct species, one bearing dark fleshed 
fruit and the other light fleshed fruit? ... In shape and 
peculiarities of fruit, color and characteristics of bark, size and 
shape of leaves, habit of growth and size of tree, they vary 
much more than any of our common fruits usually regarded as 
being derived from a single species." 

From Japan the kaki has been carried around the world. Its 
cultivation in France has already been mentioned ; it is limited 
principally to the Cote d'Azur (the Riviera) and Provence. On 
the opposite shore of the Mediterranean, in Algeria, it is grown 
to a limited extent. It has never been cultivated widely in 
1 Journal of Heredity, Sept., 1914. 



856 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

India, but A. C. Hartless reports recently that certain vari- 
eties have proved successful at Dehra Dun and elsewhere, 
and grafted plants are being disseminated from the Botanical 
Garden at Saharanpur. In Queensland, where it is said to 
have been introduced less than forty years ago, it is meeting 
with favor but is not yet extensively grown. In the United 
States it has been planted chiefly in Florida, Louisiana, and 
California. 

The name kaki, which is applied to this fruit in Japan, 
has become current in the United States and in southern 
France. Japanese persimmon and occasionally date-plum 
and Chinese date-plum are terms used in the United States, 
and plaquemine in France. The Chinese name is shi tze. 
Botanically the cultivated kakis are commonly grouped to- 
gether under the name Diospyros Kaki, L. f., of which D. 
chinensis, Blume, D. Schitse, Bunge, and D. Roxhurghii, 
Carr., are considered synonyms. French botanists have made 
botanical varieties or even species out of some of the forms 
which are elsewhere held to be mere horticultural varieties, 
e.g., costata. 

In the United States the kaki is usually sold as a fresh fruit, 
to be eaten out of hand. In Japan certain varieties are used 
extensively for drying, the product somewhat resembling dried 
figs in character and being delicious. "The method of drying, " 
writes George C. Roeding, "is simple. The skin is pared off 
and the fruits are suspended by the stems, tying them with 
string to a rope or stick and exposing them to the sun. They 
gradually lose their original form, turn quite dark and are 
covered with sugar crystals. . . . Fruit should be picked 
for drying when yellow and firm." 

Methods of processing the mature fruit, so as to remove its 
astringency, are discussed on a later page. The chemical com- 
position of five varieties is shown in the following table, from 
analyses made by H. C. Gore : 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 357 

Table VI. Composition op the Kaki 



Variett 


Total 
Solids 


Ash 


Protein 


Total 
Sugars 


Tannin 


Hachiya . . . 
Tane-nashi . 
Triumph . . . 
Tsuru .... 
Zengi .... 


% 

2506 
18.52 
20.82 
21.08 
21.83 


% 

0.49 
0.39 
0.41 
0.46 
0.49 


% 

0.64 
0.42 
0.40 
0.61 
0.73 


% 

17.71 
14.59 
14.74 
14.46 
14.72 


% 

0.88 
0.13 
1.39 
1.54 
0.41 



Cultivation. 

The kaki is distinctly a subtropical fruit and thus is not 
successful in the moist tropical lowlands, although there are 
many elevated valleys and plateaux in the tropics where it can 
be grown. Its culture in the United States is limited to regions 
which are suitable for the fig. Some varieties have survived 
temperatures as low as zero, while others are more tender. 
L. H. Bailey writes: "Many seedlings have been produced 
which seem to have increased frost-resisting powers. In- 
stances are reported in which some of these trees have with- 
stood the winters of east Tennessee. By successive sowing of 
seeds from these hardier seedlings we may look for a race of 
trees which will be adapted to the middle sections of the United 
States. There is a probability, also, that importations from 
the north of China and Japan may considerably extend the 
range northward in this country. Some varieties have suc- 
ceeded in central Virginia and Kentucky." 

Regarding the moisture requirements of the kaki, experience 
indicates that it does not need a high degree of atmospheric 
humidity if it is supplied with plenty of water at the root. 
T. Ikeda says of the trees in Japan: "They are very water- 
loving in habit and require a constant and sufficient supply 
of soil water." The behavior of the species in California has 



358 MANUALOF TROPIC At AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

shown that it is entirely successful in a semi-arid climate, 
while experience in other regions indicates that it can be grown 
equally well in a region of reasonably heavy rainfall. In parts 
of India where the precipitation is extremely heavy it has not 
done well. 

In soil requirements the kaki is not exacting. Emile Sauvaigo, 
one of the best French authorities, says: "It likes a deep, 
reasonably heavy, well-drained soil, and it does well on clays, 
when they are not too compact"; and Ikeda notes that the 
yield is larger, and the color and quality of the fruit better, 
when the trees are planted on heavy but well-drained loams. 
In California it has been observed that they make larger growth 
on heavy than on thin sandy soils, which would, of course, 
be expected. Satisfactory results are obtained in Florida 
on light sandy loams, particularly when they are moist ; in 
fact, it seems difficult to give the plant too moist a situation, 
provided the drainage is good. 

Florida nurserymen advise that the land on which kakis are 
to be planted be prepared in advance by growing a crop of 
cowpeas or velvet-beans and plowing them under to enrich the 
soil. Planting may be done in the lower South between Novem- 
ber 15 and March 1, but preference is given to the period from 
December 1 to February 1. The trees should be spaced 18 or 
20 feet apart (134 or 108 trees to the acre). As much as 24 
feet is considered a desirable distance in California. The roots 
should not be allowed to dry out while the trees are being set. 
The tops should be cut back to 2 or 2^ feet on plants which 
have not large stems. Roeding says: "The tap-root should 
be cut back to 18 inches, and fresh cuts made on all the fibrous 
roots. After the trees are set, head them back to 18 inches. The 
first winter thin out the branches, not leaving more than four 
to form the head of the tree. Cut these back at least one-half. 
In the second, third, and fourth years pruning of the tree should 
be continued to fashion it into the topical goblet form." 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 359 

Frequent and thorough cultivation of the grove during the 
spring and early summer is recommended for Florida. Culti- 
vation should be discontinued about the middle of July and a 
cover-crop then planted. This may be cowpeas, velvet-beans, 
beggarweed, or a natural growth of weeds may be allowed 
to develop. Commercial fertilizers are used to advantage. 

F. H. Burnette ^ writes as follows on this subject : 

" Good clean culture is all that is required, the same that is given 
in any well-cared-for fruit orchard. In our heavy lands, or on soils 
similar in character to the soils of the bluff lands of Louisiana, sodding- 
over should never be allowed, if good crops are desired. Any good 
complete manure may be used. A good crop of cow-peas turned 
under every two or three years will be highly beneficial. 

" During the first three years the growth of the tree should be 
watched in order to build a symmetrical, upright tree. This is not 
easy, for some of the varieties spread too much, and the leading up- 
right branches are often overloaded and become broken easily, or are 
headed back by careless removal of the fruit. Ordinarily, after they 
begin to bear, there is little need of pruning. The tendency to over- 
bear is so strong that new wood is not produced in abundance, and 
the tree becomes dwarf-like. Systematic thinning of the fruit is neces- 
sary to control this, as it will not do to leave the thinning to natural 
causes, and depend upon the tree to throw off all the fruit it cannot 
well take care of. The weakened condition from overbearing results 
in a sickly tree which readily becomes a prey to diseases and insects, 
and it requires a careful observer to train his tree and thin the fruit 
to the proper amount. ' ' 

Propagation. 

It has long been known, especially in Florida, that some 
varieties flower profusely but fail to develop any fruits. In 
other instances, though good crops are produced one season, 
yet the following year there is no fruit, even though climatic 
conditions may appear to be identical. This peculiar behavior 
was not understood until Hume showed that it was due to 
faulty pollination. In the Journal of Heredity for March, 1914, 
he writes : 

1 Bull. 99, La. Exp. Sta. 



360 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

" It was not until 1909 that attention was called to the true cause 
of barrenness in D. kaki, and the year following the cause of sporadic 
fruitfulness was learned. It was known years before to a few that 
the flowers of D. kaki are of two kinds, pistillate and staminate, but 
that this fact had any practical bearing on the problem of unfruit- 
fulness did not seem to occur to anyone. More recently the existence 
of perfect flowers, i.e., those containing both stamens and pistils, was 
brought to light. These flowers have no practical bearing on the 
problem, as they are rare, and from some cause or other not yet clearly 
understood, their ovaries very seldom develop into mature fruit. 
Since 1909, the results of more than twenty thousand hand pollina- 
tions have fairly demonstrated that pollination wiU cause fruit to set 
and grow to maturity, when without it no fruit would be produced. 

" The fruitfulness of certain trees or groups of trees in some seasons 
and not in others, even when pistillate flowers were present in goodly 
numbers each season, can now be explained by the fact that there 
are certain horticultural varieties of D. kaki which produce staminate 
flowers at irregular intervals. They may be found on certain trees 
one season and not the next. Many seasons may elapse before they 
appear again. It may even happen that never again are they pro- 
duced, or they may be produced every other season. Many com- 
binations of intervals or skips in the production of staminate flowers 
are possible and probable. A number of them have been observed 
and noted with references to particular trees. The staminate flowers, 
when they occur on these trees, are abundantly supplied with pollen 
and fertilize not only pistillate flowers on the same trees, but through 
the agency of insects the flowers of many trees surrounding them." 

It was evident to Hume, therefore, that a variety was needed 
which could be depended on for the production of pollen to 
fertilize the flowers of trees which lacked the male element. 
The search for such a variety brought several to light, and one 
of them, the Gailey, is now recommended for planting as a 
pollinizer. By setting one of these trees to seven or eight of 
other kinds, productiveness is insured, Hume continues: 

" It must be emphasized that the behavior of D. kaki in its relation 
to pollination, or of any other fruit for the matter of that, in any one 
locality, is no index to its behavior under any other set of conditions. 
Even though the conditions may appear to be the same, there are 
differences which we are too dull to detect or too ignorant to under- 
stand, but which nevertheless operate on the trees and influence the 
results. It is a matter of observation that under certain local seasonal 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 361 

and climatic conditions some varieties of D. kaki will set good crops 
of fruit without pollination (seedless of course) while under another 
set of conditions they do not do so. One season they may bloom freely 
and set all the fruit the trees should carry and with an equal amount 
of bloom in another season the same trees may bring no fruit to 
maturity. 

" To sum up conditions as they are at present in the Lower South, 
and based on numerous observations extending over more than a 
decade, it is a fact that trees of all varieties of D. kaki, in good health 
and which bloom under normal weather conditions, can be depended 
upon to bear good crops if pollinated and it is equally true (a few 
varieties only excepted) that they will not do so if pollen is not pro- 
vided. In the last two seasons it has been amply demonstrated that 
all that is necessary is to have staminate flowering trees in proximity 
to the pistillate ones and bees, wasps, flies and other insects will take 
care of the problem according to nature's own plan. 

"What is the owner of an orchard already planted to do if he 
desires to place pollinizers in his orchard? It is quite easy to bud 
over branches here and there in properly placed trees. No preliminary 
cutting back is necessary, as the buds may be inserted where the 
bark is anywhere from one to three years old. The work should be 
done just as the leaves are coming out in the spring, using the ordi- 
nary method of shield-budding, and tying the buds in place with 
waxed cloth. The wraps should be left on about three weeks and as 
soon as the buds have taken, the branches should be cut back, leaving 
stubs five or six inches long to which the shoots from the buds may 
be tied as they grow out. These stubs should be removed at the 
end of one season's growth." 

It may be mentioned that Tane-nashi, normally a seedless 
variety, fruits well without pollination, and it is thought that 
Tamopan may do the same. 

The question of pollination is probably less important in semi- 
arid regions, such as California, than in the moist climate of 
Florida. The prospective grower should in any event use care 
in the selection of varieties, and satisfy himself as to the need 
of supplying pollinizers for them, before he undertakes to 
develop a commercial kaki orchard. 

Horticultural varieties of the kaki are commonly propagated 
by budding and grafting. Several species of Diospyros are 
used as stock-plants. 



362 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The Chinese ring-bud or graft their plants upon the ghae 
isao (Diospyros Lotus) and other species. The Japanese graft 
upon D. Lotus, on the shihukaki (an astringent variety of D. 
kaki), and occasionally on seedlings of the common sweet- 
fruited kaki. Ikeda states that stock-plants must be three 
years old and that grafting is done in early spring, using cions 
which have been stored for some days. Sauvaigo says that 
in southern France the kaki is grafted upon D. Lotus, D. 
virginiana (the common persimmon of the southern United 
States), and one or two other species. Crown-grafting and other 
methods are used, and the work is done in autumn or spring. 

Hume considers that the best stock-plant for the southern 
United States is the common persimmon {D. virginiana), 
since it is more vigorous and produces a larger tree than other 
species. D. Lotus has been used in California but its value 
is not yet fully determined. Frank N. Meyer says of it : "As 
a stock, this persimmon may give to its grafted host a much 
longer life than the native American persimmon seems to be 
able to, for in China all the cultivated persimmons (kakis) 
grow much older than they do in America. Of some varieties 
there, one finds trees grafted on D. Lotus that are centuries old 
and still very productive." 

Bailey writes: "The best method of propagating Japan 
persimmons is by collar-grafting upon seedlings of the native 
species {Diospyros virginiana), which are grown either by 
planting the seed in nursery rows or transplanting the young 
seedlings from seed-beds early in the spring. The seedlings 
can be budded in summer, and in favorable seasons a fair pro- 
portion of the buds will succeed. Thus propagated, the trees 
seem to be longer-lived than those imported from Japan. 
Inasmuch as the native stock is used, the range of adaptation 
as to soils and similar conditions is very great. As a stock, 
Diospyros Lotus is adapted to the drier parts of the West, 
where D. virginiana does not succeed." 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 363 

Both cleft-grafting and whip-grafting are employed in 
Florida. Whip-grafting is considered best if the stock-plants 
are small. California nurserymen use the same methods and 
make a point of placing the graft as close to the root as possible. 

Kaki trees begin bearing when three or four years old, and, 
proper attention being given the matter of pollination, produce 
heavy crops of fruit. Indeed, it is usually necessary in Cali- 
fornia to thin the fruit lest the trees injure themselves by over- 
bearing. Pollination has been discussed on a previous page. 

Picking and shipping. 

If the fruit is to be shipped to distant markets, it should be 
gathered when fully grown but before it has begun to soften. 
Clippers or picking-shears should be used, and the fruit must 
be handled carefully, since it is easily bruised. Even when 
intended for home use it is preferable to gather it before it has 
begun to soften, and then ripen it in a dry warm room. Fruit 
treated in this manner is fully as good as that ripened on the 
tree. 

Kakis should be packed for shipment as soon as picked. 
The six-basket carrier, commonly used for peaches, is employed 
in shipping them from Florida to northern markets. Each 
fruit is wrapped in thin paper. 
Hume writes : 

"Some of the varieties have dark flesh, others light flesh, still 
others a mixture of the two. The light and dark flesh differ radically 
in texture and consistency, as well as in appearance, and when found 
in the same fruit are never blended, but always distinct. The dark 
flesh is never astringent, the light flesh is astringent until it softens. 
The dark-fleshed fruit is crisp and meaty, like an apple, and is edible 
before it matures. Some of the entirely dark-fleshed kinds improve 
as they soften, like Hyakume and Yeddo-ichi ; others are best when 
still hard, like Zengi. As they are good to eat before they are ripe, 
it is not so important that the dark-fleshed kinds be allowed to reach a 
certain stage before being offered to consumers unfamiliar with the 
fruit. The light-fleshed kinds, and those with mixed light and dark 



364 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

flesh, are very delicious when they reach the custard-light consistency 
of full ripeness. In some the astringeney disappears as the fruit 
begins to soften, as with Yemon, and in a less degree with Okame, 
Tane-nashi ; in others it persists until the fruit is fully ripe, as with 
Tsuru. The light-fleshed kinds should not be offered to consumers 
unacquainted with the fruit until in condition to be eaten. A person 
who has attempted to eat one of them when green and ' puckery ' will 
not be quick to repeat the experiment. The ' puckery ' substance in 
the immature persimmon is tannin. As the fruit ripens, the tannin 
forms into crystals which do not dissolve in the mouth, and in this 
way the astringeney disappears." 

Various methods are employed to remove the astringeney 
of the light-fleshed kinds and render them fit for eating. The 
Japanese place them in tubs from which saki (rice beer) has 
recently been withdrawn ; the tubs are then closed tightly, 
and after ten days the fruit is found to have lost its astringeney 
and to be in condition for eating, George C. Roeding of Cali- 
fornia reports : " A new, simple process of alcohol inoculation 
has been practiced lately. Pierce the fruits at the bottom 
several times with a common needle dipped in alcohol, and pack 
them in a tight box or container lined with straw and with 
layers between the rows, keeping the box closed for ten days." 

Several years ago H. C. Gore and his associates in the United 
States Department of Agriculture conducted extensive experi- 
ments looking toward the perfection of a method for processing 
kakis commercially. It was found that by placing the fruits 
in an air-tight drum or container and subjecting them to the 
influence of carbon-dioxide for a period of two to seven days, 
the astringeney was entirely removed from certain varieties. 
With other kinds the method was not altogether successful. 
Since processing must always be tedious, it seems more satis- 
factory to plant only the sorts which do not require this treat- 
ment. 

If the orchard comprises several varieties, ripe fruit may be 
picked in Florida from August to December or even later, and in 
California from September to December. Hume notes, re- 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 365 

garding Florida: "The first persimmon to ripen is Zengi, 
in August ; the whole crop does not come at this time, however, 
but continues to ripen for sixty days, the seedless ones being 
larger and later. . . . Early in September come the first 
Okames, continuing to ripen for a month. Hyakume ripens 
from September 15 to 30, the bulk of the crop ripening to- 
gether, which is also true of Yemon, which ripens next. Some 
fruits of Triumph ripen in September, and it continues to ripen 
its fruits until December. At any time after the middle of 
October the whole crop of Triumph may be removed and 
ripened off the trees. Tane-nashi ripens with Yemon and 
Hachiya with Okame, Yeddo-ichi early in October, Costata 
later in the month, and Tsuru latest of all, often hanging on 
the trees until midwinter." Roeding gives the ripening season 
of the principal commercial varieties in California as follows : 
Tane-nashi in September, Hachiya in October, Hyakume in 
November, and Yemon in December. 

Pests and diseases. 

There are few insects or fungous diseases which need cause 
the American kaki-grower serious concern. The Mediterranean 
fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) attacks the fruit in Australia, 
but this insect has not yet made its appearance in the United 
States. A few scale insects are occasionally found in the kaki 
orchards of California and Florida, but the attacks of none 
have proved serious. Hume writes as follows with reference 
to Florida : 

" The worst enemy of persimmon trees, and the only one worthy 
of note, is the flat-headed borer {Dicer a obscura), a native insect. 
The adult is a hard, metallic beetle, about five-eighths inch in length. 
It lays its eggs in rough-barked places in the crotches of the tree, or 
in wounds made in pruning or resulting from injuries of any kind. 
The young borers hatched from these eggs bore through the bark, 
work between the bark and wood, later boring into the wood. The 
larvae when well grown are about one inch long, white, with broad, 



366 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

flat heads and round bodies. That they are at work in a tree may 
be known by the discolored bark and by gum oozing from the trunk 
or branches. Cut away the bark with a sharp knife or chisel and 
destroy them. Paint the wounds thus made with good, thick, white- 
lead paint. Carefully paint all wounds when made, and scrape 
the rough-barked places on young trees. By careful attention to 
wounds on the trees, they may be prevented from entering, and 
the trees will live to a good old age." 

Varieties. 

1 Although 800 varieties are grown in Japan, Ikeda does not 
' consider more than 90 to be valuable. In the United States 
the number offered by nurserymen is relatively' small. The 
nomenclature of the horticultural varieties in Japan is some- 
what confused, and doubtless nurserymen have multiplied the 
names. China possesses a considerable number of varieties, 
but relatively few of them are yet known in the United States. 
Japanese writers classify kakis according as they are sweet 
or astringent. Hume points out that such a classification is not 
tenable, inasmuch as certain varieties fall in the sweet group 
when carrying seeds and in the astringent group when seedless. 
He writes in the Journal of Heredity for September, 1914 : 

"Based on the difference in flesh coloration under the influence 
of pollination, kaki may be divided into at least two groups, — first, ' 
those which show no change of color of flesh under the influence of 
pollination, and, second, those in which the flesh of the fruit is dark- 
ened under the influence of pollination. Since the change in color 
in the one case is directly due to pollination and in the other pollina- 
tion has no effect whatever, we shall refer to those varieties which 
undergo no change in color as Pollination Constants and those which 
are light colored when seedless and dark colored when seedy we shall 
call Pollination Variants. Now, all varieties of D. kaki growing in 
this country or elsewhere may be referred to one or the other of these 
groups. If varieties which are constantly dark-fleshed whether seedy 
or seedless should be found, the group of Pollination Constants can 
then be divided into two groups of light- and dark-fleshed Pollina- 
tion Constants. It is hardly probable that there are varieties which 
are dark-fleshed when seedless and light-fleshed when seedy, but if 
any such should be discovered a similar plan can be followed by divid- 
ing the group of Pollination Variants." 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 



367 



The varieties here described are grouped according to this 
classification. The number is hmited to those which are well 
known in the United States, and are offered here by nursery- 
men. Regarding their relative merits, Hume says: "Tane- 
nashi, Triumph, Okame, Yemon, and Yeddo-ichi excel in 
quality, perhaps in the order named. Okame, on account of 
its long season, exquisite beauty, and superior quality, is the 
best for home use and the local market. Hachiya is valued 
for its immense size and showiness. For market, Tane-nashi 
and Yemon, of the light-fleshed kinds, and Hyakume and 
Yeddo-ichi, of the dark-fleshed kinds, are good shippers and 
desirable ; Okame is also good." Fuyugaki, a variety recently 
introduced by the Department of Agriculture, now promises 
to excel all other kakis as a market fruit ; it is never astringent 
(hence requires no processing), the appearance and quality 
of the fruit are both highly satisfactory, and the tree is very 
productive. 



Group of pollination constants 

Costata. — Form conical, pointed, somewhat four-angled in trans- 
verse section ; size medium, length 2f inches, thickness 2| inches ; 
surface salmon-yellow ; flesh light yellow, dark-colored flesh or seeds sel- 
dom occurring ; flavor astringent until the fruit is fully ripe, then sweet 
and pleasant. Ripening season very late. 

Tree distinctive in appearance and a rapid 
erect grower. It does not produce staminate 
flowers in Florida. The fruit is remarkable 
for its good keeping qualities. 

Fuyugaki (Fig. 47). — Form oblate; size 
medium-large, length about 2 inches, thick- 
ness about 2f inches; base with sometimes 
four creases extending outward from the 
stem, the calyx reflexed in the ripe fruit ; 
apex depressed, with smooth, regular, shallow 
basin ; surface deep orange-red in color ; skin 
thin, tough ; flesh firm, meaty when ripe, deep carrot-orange in color, 
with minute, widely scattered dark specks ; flavor sweet, with no as- 
tringency even in the unripe fruit ; seeds f inch long, few. 

Recently introduced from Japan by the United States Depart- 




FiG. 47. The Fuyugaki 
kaki. (X about ^) 



368 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 




Fig. 



48. The Hachiya 
kaki. (X i) 



ment of Agriculture. Hume says: "It keeps well, and in quality 

is one of the best. We believe this variety will surpass all other 
Japan persimmons so far introduced as a 
market fruit. It can be placed on the market 
while still hard, and can be eaten without 
waiting for the fruit to soften." 

Hachiya (Fig. 48). — ■ Form oblong-conical, 
with a short point at the apex ; size very large, 
length 3f inches, thickness 3j inches ; surface 
bright orange-red, with occasional dark spots 
and rings near the apex; flesh deep yellow, 
sometimes having a few dark streaks in it ; 
flavor astringent until the fruit is fully ripe, 
then rich and sweet ; seeds present. Ripens 
midseason to late. 

Tree vigorous in growth, Avith a tendency 
to bear fruit in alternate years. It does not 
produce staminate flowers in Florida. The 
fruit is large and handsome. Said to be one 
of the principal varieties used in Japan for 
drying. 

Ormond. — Form conical ; size small to 

medium, length 2| inches, thickness 1| inches ; base rounded, with the 

calyx reflexed ; apex sharp, not creased, or only slightly so ; surface 

smooth, bright orange-red, covered with a thin 

bloom ; skin thin, tough ; flesh orange-red, 

meaty, or jelly-like in the fully ripe fruit; 

seeds large, long, pointed. Ripening season 

late (December in Florida). 

A fruit of good quality, and one which 

keeps well. 

Tamopan. — Form broadly oblate with a 

constriction around the middle ; size large, 

weight sometimes 16 ounces, diameter 3 to 5 

inches; surface smooth, orange-red in color ; 

skin tough and rather thick ; flesh meaty, 

light colored ; flavor astringent until the fruit 

is fully ripe, then rich and sweet ; seedless. ^ . , -, ■ 

Introduced from China by the United ifZ'". ^°\*t^ Production 

„, , T-w 4. J. i? A ■ ij. mi 01 dried kakis, and now 

btates Department of Agriculture. The 

tree is a strong, upright grower. 

Tane-nashi (Fig. 49) . — Form roundish 
conical, very symmetrical ; size large to very large, length 3^ inches, thick- 
ness 3f inches ; surface very smooth, light yellow to bright orange-red ; 
flesh yellow, soft ; flavor sweet and pleasant ; seedless. Ripens early. 




Fig. 49. The Tane- 
nashi kaki, one of the prin- 
cipal varieties used in 
Jaj 
of 

grown commercially in the 
United States. (X about J) 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 369 

The tree is vigorous, prolific, and self-fertile, but it has shown a 
tendency in California to bear in alternate years. Extensively used 
in Japan for drying and considered a valuable market variety in the 
United States. Perhaps the most highly esteemed of the light-fleshed 
kinds. 

Triumph. — Form oblate ; size medium ; surface yellowish to 
deep orange-red; skin thick; flesh yellowish red, translucent, soft 
and juicy ; flavor astringent until the fruit is fully ripe, when it be- 
comes sweet and pleasant ; seedless or with as many as 5 to 8 seeds. 
Ripens in Florida from September to December. 

The tree does not produce staminate flowers in Florida. A fruit 
of good quality, recommended for home use and for market. 

Tsuru. — Form slender, pointed; size large, length 3| inches, 
thickness 2f inches; surface bright orange-red; flesh orange-yellow; 
flavor astringent until the fruit is fully ripe, when it becomes sweet 
and pleasant. Ripens very late. 

Tree vigorous and productive, but does not produce staminate 
flowers in Florida. 

Group of pollination variants 

Galley. — Form oblong-conical, sharp at the apex; size smaU; sur- 
face dull red, pebbled ; flesh meaty, firm, and juicy ; flavor pleasant. 

This variety regularly .produces staminate flowers every year, and 
is recommended for planting as a pollin zer n conjunction with the 
larger- and better-fruited sorts. One tree of Gailey should be planted 
to seven or eight of other varieties except Tane-nashi. 

Hyakume. — Form roundish oblong to roundish oblate, always 
somewhat flattened at both ends ; size large to very large, length 
2 1 inches, thickness 3| inches ; surface light buff-yellow, marked with 
rings and veins near the apex ; flesh dark brown, crisp and meaty ; 
flavor sweet, not astringent even while the fruit is still hard. Ripens 
midseason. 

The tree is vigorous and productive, but never produces staminate 
flowers in Florida. One of the standard commercial varieties in 
California. 

Okame. — Form roundish oblate, with well-defined quarter-marks, 
and the apex not depressed ; size large, length 2f inches, thickness 
3i inches ; surface orange-yellow, changing to brilliant carmine, with 
a thin bloom which gives it a waxy translucent appearance ; flesh 
light colored, brownish around the seeds, of which there are several ; 
flavor astringent until the fruit begins to ripen, when it becomes 
sweet and pleasant. Ripens rather early. 

The tree is vigorous in growth and a good bearer. It bears stami- 
nate flowers sporadically in Florida. The fruit is excellent in quality. 
Yeddo-ichi. — Form oblate ; size large, length 2| inches, thickness 

2b 



370 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

3 inches ; surface smooth or undulating, dark orange-red, and covered 
with a distinct bloom; flesh dark brown, tinged purplish; flavor 
sweet and rich, not astringent even while the fruit is still hard. ^ 

A fruit of excellent quality. 

Yemon. — Form oblate, somewhat four-angled ; size large, length 
2 J inches, thickness 3 j inches ; surface light yellow, changing to reddish 
and mottled with orange-yellow ; flesh dull red-brown, except in occa- 
sional light-fleshed specimens ; few-seeded or seedless ; flavor sweet 
and pleasant after the fruit begins to soften. 

A fruit of excellent quality. 

Zengi. — Form round or roundish oblate; size small, length If 
inches, thickness 2 J inches; surface yellowish red ; flesh dark-colored ; 
flavor sweet, even in the unripe fruit ; seeds present. Ripens very 
early. 

The tree is vigorous in growth and prolific in fruiting. 

The Black Sapote (Plate XXII) 
(Diospyros Ebenaster, Retz.) 

Outside of Mexico the black sapote is little known ; in that 
country, however, it is one of the popular fruits and is grown 
from sea-level up to elevations of 5000 or even 6000 feet. Un- 
fortunately, the dark color of the flesh makes the fruit some- 
what unattractive to those not familiar with it, but its large 
size, relative freedom from seeds, and its good quality make it a 
worthy tropical rival of the subtropical kaki or Japanese 
persimmon. 

In the Mexican lowlands the black sapote, if grown on deep, 
rich, and moist soil, becomes a large and handsome tree, ulti- 
mately reaching 50 or 60 feet in height. In regions where the 
climate is cool or the soil is not favorable, it may not grow 
higher than 25 or 30 feet. The branchlets are dark colored, 
and the leaves elliptic or oblong in outline, usually obtuse at 
the apex, commonly 4 to 8 inches long, and bright green and 
shining. The flowers are small and white and resemble those 
of the kaki. They are polygamous, i.e., some of them possess 
both stamens and pistils and others are stamina te. The oblate 
fruit, which has a conspicuous green calyx around the stem 




Plate XIX. The sapodilla (Achras Sapota). 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 371 

and is somewhat obscurely ribbed or lobed, is 2 to 5 inches in 
diameter and ohve-green in color. The pulp which lies within 
its thin skin is soft, unctuous, dark chocolate brown in color, 
and of sweet flavor similar to that of the kaki but scarcely so 
pleasant. The seeds, one to ten in number (occasionally none), 
are oval, compressed, and about f inch long. 

William Philip Iliern, a recent monographer of the Ebenacese, 
following the botanist Manuel Blanco, considers the black 
sapote to be indigenous in the Philippine Islands. Other 
authorities, however, hold that its native home is in Mexico, 
and perhaps also in the West Indies. Many American plants 
were carried to the Philippines in the early days by the Spanish 
galleons which plied between Acapulco and Manila, and con- 
versely, certain Philippine plants were brought to America. 
Elmer D. Merrill^ observes regarding the black sapote: 
"Rarely cultivated, flowering in March; of local occurrence 
in the Philippines. Introduced from Mexico at an early date, 
and apparently formerly much more common than now." The 
existence of an Aztec name, tliltzapotl (if Manuel Urbina is 
correct in believing that this name was applied by the Aztecs to 
Diospyros Ebenaster) would argue an ancient cultivation in 
America, though it would not necessarily indicate that the 
species is indigenous here. But on the whole, the evidence 
seems to weigh heavily in favor of an American, as opposed 
to an Asiatic, origin. 

At the present time, the black sapote is cultivated on a very 
limited scale in the West Indies and in Hawaii, and rarely 
in the East Indies. It has been planted at Miami, Florida, 
where it gives promise of being quite successful. It is some- 
times injured by frost in that region, but danger from this 
source seems to be no greater than with the mango. Although 
many seedlings have been planted in California, they have 
failed to survive the winters, even when grown in the most 
1 Flora of Manila. 



372 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

protected situations. The common name of the fruit in Porto 
Rico is guayabote or guayahota; in Hawaii it has been called 
black persimmon ; while the usual terms in Mexico are zapote 
negro and zapote prieto. 

The black sapote is eaten fresh. It is more highly esteemed 
by Europeans when the pulp is beaten with a small quantity of 
orange or lemon juice and served as a dessert. It should be 
chilled thoroughly before serving. 

In its climatic requirements the species must be considered 
tropical, yet it will succeed in regions occasionally subject to 
temperatures of 28° or 30° above zero. Young plants, however, 
are killed by freezing temperatures, and for this reason it is 
necessary in Florida to protect them during the first few 
winters. In Mexico the species grows both in regions subject 
to heavy rainfall and those which are extremely dry, but in 
the latter it requires abundant irrigation. It is most commonly 
grown at elevations from to 2000 feet, which indicates that it 
prefers a warm climate. It prefers a deep, moist, sandy loam, 
but has made fairly good growth in Florida on shallow sandy soil. 

Like other fruits, the black sapote is grown in the tropics 
as a dooryard tree and is not often planted in orchard form. 
Little is known, therefore, regarding the cultural methods which 
will best suit it. Young trees are set in the open ground when 
one to two feet high, and should be spaced (if in the tropics 
and on deep soil) not closer than 40 feet, or 25 feet if in a sub- 
tropical climate (such as that of Florida) and on poor soil. 
Propagation is usually effected by means of the seeds, which 
retain their viability for several months if kept dry. They 
should be sown ^ inch deep in flats or pots of light loamy soil, 
and will germinate in about a month if the weather is warm. 
When three inches high, the plants may be transferred to three- 
inch pots. Their growth is slow and they require one to two 
years to reach suitable size for transplanting to the open 
ground. 



THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES 373 

P. J. Wester has found that the species may be propagated 
by shield-budding in much the same manner as the avocado and 
the mango. Using this method it is possible to perpetuate 
choice varieties which originate as chance seedlings. Wester 
says briefly : " Use mature, but not green and smooth, petioled 
budwood ; cut the buds about an inch and a half long ; insert 
the bud at a point where the stock is green or brown before it 
becomes rough." 

Seedling trees do not come into bearing until they are five or 
six years of age. Even more time than this has been required 
in Florida. Mature trees usually bear regularly and heavily. 
The ripening season in the Mexican lowlands is July to Septem- 
ber, somewhat later in the tierra templada or region which lies 
between 2500 and 4000 feet. If taken from the tree when 
mature and shipped immediately, the fruit may be sent to dis- 
tant markets; but once it has softened (usually three to six 
days after it is picked) , it is difficult to handle because of its thin 
delicate skin and the large mass of soft pulp. 

No horticultural varieties have as yet been established. 
Seedlings differ noticeably in the size and character of their 
fruits, and it will be worth while to search out the best ones 
and propagate them by budding. Fruits 1^ pounds in weight 
are seen at Tehuantepec, State of Oaxaca, Mexico. 

The Mabolo 

{Diospyros discolor, W^illd.) 

Like the durian and- the santol, the mabolo is a Malayan 
fruit little known outside its native area. It is a medium-sized 
tree with oblong-acute leaves 4 to 8 inches long, shining above 
and pubescent beneath. The fruit is round or oblate in form, 
about 3 inches in diameter, with a thin, velvety, dull red skin, 
and whitish, aromatic, rather dry flesh which adheres to the 
four to eight large seeds. P. J. Wester writes : " There is also 



374 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

a variety, rarer than the red, with yellowish to light brown 
fruits, the flesh of which is cream colored and sweeter, and less 
astringent. Trees bearing regular crops of seedless fruits 
are known in the Philippines. The main season of the mabolo 
extends from June to September, but scattered fruits are found 
at practically all seasons of the year. It is of medium vigorous 
growth and makes a desirable ornamental shade tree. It is 
indigenous to the Philippines and is fairly Avell introduced 
throughout the eastern tropics." It is not cultivated in the 
West Indies or elsewhere in tropical America, although a few 
trees may have been planted in botanic gardens and private 
collections. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 

The pomegranate and jujube are not closely related botani- 
cally, but the cultural requirements are similar. The pome- 
granate is the only genus of its family (the Punicaceae), while 
the jujube (genus Zizyphus) is one of 40 or 50 genera of the 
Rhamnacese or Buckthorn family. 

The Pomegranate (Plate XXII) 
{Punica Granatum, L.) 

"Eat the pomegranate," sententiously said the prophet 
Muhammad, "for it purges the system of envy and hatred." 
Far earlier than in the days of Muhammad, however, was this 
fruit esteemed in the Orient. King Solomon possessed an 
orchard of pomegranate bushes; and when the Children of 
Israel, wandering in the Wilderness, sighed for the abandoned 
comforts of Egypt, the cooling pomegranates, along with figs 
and grapes, were remembered as longingly as the fleshpots. 

It is with the grape and the fig that the pomegranate has 
been associated since the earliest times ; but while in the East 
it still vies with them in popularity and importance, in America 
it occupies a minor position. Probably this is due : first, to 
the abundance here of other good fruits ; and, secondly, to 
something in the character of the pomegranate which makes it 
particularly agreeable to inhabitants of hot arid regions. 
For this latter reason it might appeal in this country to a rela- 
tively small number; but even in the desert valleys of Cali- 

375 



376 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

fornia and Arizona, where it should be most acceptable, 
Americans have not yet learned to appreciate it fully. 

About 150 acres are now planted commercially to pome- 
granates in California. The total production in the United 
States, according to the census of 1910, is about 150,000 pounds. 

If allowed to develop naturally, the pomegranate becomes a 
bush 15 to 20 feet in height. By training, it can be made to 
form a tree, usually branching close to the ground. It is 
semi-deciduous or deciduous in habit. The leaves are lanceolate 
to oblong (sometimes obovate) in form, obtuse, about 3 inches 
long, glossy, bright green, and glabrous. The handsome 
brilliant orange-red flowers are axillary, solitary, or in small 
clusters, and borne toward the ends of the branchlets. The 
calyx is tubular, persistent, five- to seven-lobed ; the petals, 
five to seven in number, are lanceolate, inserted between the 
calyx-lobes. The ovary is embedded in the calyx-tube, and 
contains several locules in two series, one above the other. 

The fruit is globose or somewhat flattened, obscurely six- 
sided, the size of an orange or sometimes larger, and crowned 
by the thick tubular calyx, giving an ornamental effect. It has 
a smooth leathery skin, which in the ripe fruit ranges from 
brownish yellow to red in color. Thin dissepiments divide, 
the upper portion into several cells ; below these, a diaphragm 
separates the lower half, which in its turn is divided into several 
cells. Each cell is filled with a large number of grains, crowded 
on thick spongy placentse; these grains, which are many- 
sided and about ^ inch long, consist of a thin transparent vesicle 
containing reddish juicy pulp surrounding an elongated angular 
seed. The pulp is delightfully subacid in flavor. 

Alphonse DeCandolle reached the conclusion that the 
"botanical, historical, and philological data agree in showing 
that the modern species is a native of Persia and some adjacent 
countries," an opinion which is generally accepted at the present 
day. The cultivation of the pomegranate, which began in 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 377 

prehistoric times, was extended, before the Christian era, west- 
ward to the Mediterranean region and eastward into China. 
At the present time it is a common fruit in India, Afghanistan, 
Persia, Arabia, and near the shores of the Mediterranean both 
in Europe and Africa, more particularly the latter. In America 
it is scattered from the southern United States to Chile and 
Argentina, probably reaching its greatest perfection in the 
arid regions of California, Arizona, and northern Mexico. 

Throughout tropical America the plant is common in gardens 
and dooryards, but in many places it is grown more for its 
ornamental value than for its fruit. In humid climates the 
fruit is inferior in quality. 

The ancient Semitic name rimmon has been adopted by the 
Arabs as nimman, and later the Portuguese roma or roman was 
formed from it. From the early Roman names malum punicum 
(apple of Carthage) and granatum have been taken the botanical 
name Tunica Granatum, L., under which the species is known 
scientifically, and the common name granada, used throughout 
Spanish-speaking countries. From this same source, evidently, 
are the French grenade and the German granatapfel. Of the 
several names current in Hindustan anar is the commonest; 
darimba is the Sanskrit name. The Persians know the pome- 
granate-flower as julnar. 

The fruit is peculiarly refreshing in character, hence is much 
eaten in hot countries. It is also used to prepare a cooling 
drink known as grenadine; but the beverage dispensed under 
this name in the Mediterranean region and tropical America 
commonly is colored and flavored artificially. The roots of the 
plant and the rind and seeds of the fruit are used medicinally in 
the Orient. The classical Arab lexicographers define the pome- 
granate as : "a certain fruit, the produce of a certain tree, well 
known ; the sweet sort thereof relaxes the state of the bowels, 
and cough ; the sour sort has the contrary effect ; and that which 
is between sweet and sour is good for inflammation of the 



378 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

stomach, and pain of the heart. The pomegranate has six 
flavors, like the apple, and is commended for its delicacy, its 
quick dissolving, and its elegance." 

In the United States the fruit has been more highly valued 
for its decorative effect than for other purposes. It is used 
on banquet-tables and as an adjunct to fruit salads. The 
principal chemical constituents of the pulp, as determined in 
Hawaii by Alice R. Thompson, are as follows : Total solids 
17.52 per cent, ash 0.73, acids 0.13, protein 0.52, total sugars 
16.07, fat 0.30, and fiber 0.32. 

While the pomegranate can be grown throughout the tropics 
and subtropics, it produces good fruit only in semi-arid regions 
where high temperatures accompany the ripening season. In 
this respect it somewhat resembles the date-palm, although it 
is less exacting as regards heat than the latter and more frost- 
resistant. Like the palm, it requires plenty of water at the root, 
if good fruit is to be produced in abundance ; nevertheless, it is 
able to withstand long periods of drought. Minimum tem- 
peratures of 15° or 18° above zero may not injure the plants 
severely. The sour varieties are said to be hardier than the 
sweet. No climate is too hot for the pomegranate, provided it 
receives ample water. 

In regard to soil, the species is not exacting but it is considered 
to succeed best on deep, rather heavy, loams. It is on soils of 
this type that the excellent pomegranates of Mesopotamia are 
grown. A smair amount of alkali is not injurious, nor does 
excessive moisture seem as detrimental to the pomegranate as 
to many other fruit-trees. George C. Roeding remarks: "I 
have used the pomegranate for a number of years in depressions 
in my vineyard where the ground was so damp for a good part 
of the year that grape vines invariably died. The pome- 
granate luxuriates in these spots." 

When planted in orchard form, the bushes should be set 
12 to 18 feet apart. Pomegranates are often planted in hedge- 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 379 

rows, and' under such conditions are ordinarily not more than 
6 or 8 feet apart; but close planting and the permitting of 
development of suckers from the base of the plant naturally 
are detrimental to fruit-production. 

Cultural practices in California have been described by Robert 
W. Hodgson, in "The Pomegranate." ^ The following extracts 
are taken from his publication : 

" Pomegranate trees should be planted as early in the spring as the 
ground can readily be worked and is not too wet. However, as the 
pomegranate starts growth comparatively late in the spring, late 
planting is not accompanied by such disastrous effects as with the 
stone fruits. The best results seem to be obtained by planting in 
February and March. 

" If the soil is in good condition, little care other than irrigation 
and two or three cultivations during the season is needed after planting. 
In older orchards the soil should be stirred at least once a month during 
the growing season. 

" Some growers irrigate but little, while others apply as much as they 
give their citrus orchards. ... If we set the water requirements of 
orange trees at fifty inches, including the rainfall, we may consider 
that the pomegranate requires thirty-five to forty inches. Some of 
this water comes as rain in the winter season. The rest is usually 
applied in two to five irrigations, distributed through the growing 
season. Some growers irrigate until July only. Others apply water 
once a month until September. The furrow system is used almost 
universally. 

" To prune intelligently, one must consider the fruiting habit, and 
habit of growth of the tree. The pomegranate is a vigorous grower, 
sending up each year a number of shoots from the root which gives the 
plant a bush form unless otherwise trained. The fruit is borne termi- 
nally on short spurs produced on slow-growing mature wood. This 
wood bears for several years, but as the tree increases in size this wood 
loses its fruiting habit, which is assumed by the younger growth. 
. Little or no fruit is produced in the interior of the tree. 

" Bearing this in mind, it can clearly be seen that a heavy pruning, 
especially shortening in of the older wood, will greatly reduce the crop 
for the next two or three years. 

" When the tree is planted it should be cut back to a whip at about 24 
to 30 inches from the ground. As the buds put out and shoots are 
produced, these should be selected and thinned out to three or five or 

iBuU. 276, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



380 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

more scaffold branches whieh should be pinched back to make them 
stocky. These should be spaced some distance apart, — the lowest 
at least eight or ten inches from the ground, — and symmetrically 
arranged on the stem. The following winter the scaffold branches 
should be shortened to about three-fifths of their length. In the 
spring the new shoots arising from the scaffold branches (primary 
branches) should be restricted to two or three per limb. The main 
stem and frame limbs should be kept free from suckers at all times. 
The aim in pruning while the tree is young is to induce the formation 
of a stocky, compact framework. This should be accomplished by the 
end of the second or third year. 

" After the framework is established all the growth is left and the 
tree comes into bearing. From this time to the age of 15 or 20 years, 
the tree increases slowly in size and yield. Pruning after the third year 
should be confined to a regular removal of all sucker growth arising 
from the root, and interfering branches as well as dead brush, and an 
annual thinning out or removal of some of the older branches. This 
should be done after the leaves fall in winter." 

Propagation of the pomegranate is effected by means of 
seeds, cuttings, and layers. Seeds can be grown readily, but 
named varieties cannot be reproduced in this manner. Hodgson 
writes : 

" The only method of propagation used commercially is by hard- 
wood cuttings. These will grow in the open ground about as readily 
as willow cuttings. The stand obtained is very satisfactory and the 
method used very simple. In February or March hardwood cuttings 
ten to twelve inches long and one-quarter to a half inch in diameter 
are cut, usually from the shoots or suckers, and are planted in the open 
ground in nursery rows. These rows are ordinarily three feet apart 
and the cuttings spaced eight to ten inches in the row. The cuttings 
should be thrust almost their entire length into the earth, leaving only 
the top eye exposed. This eye is forced out and grows into the tree. 
Cuttings of this sort grow thriftily and are often ready for trans- 
planting to the orchard or hedge by the following spring, although they 
are frequently left in the nursery row two seasons. Hardwood cuttings' 
are sometimes cut in the fall and callused in sand over winter, then set 
out in early spring. This may result in a little earlier growth and 
consequently a larger tree that season, but is not necessary to insure 
striking root." 

When grown under good cultural conditions, the plants come 
into bearing at three or four years of age. The yield is influenced 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 381 

by the character of soil and the method of pruning followed. 
On sandy soils light crops must be expected ; and if suckers are 
allowed to develop unhindered, or if the mature plant is pruned 
of its fruit-bearing wood, little fruit can be produced. It is 
necessary to emphasize the importance of pruning in connection 
with pomegranate culture. A properly grown tree of mature 
size may yield 200 to 400 pounds of fruit annually, but one 
which has been subjected to incorrect pruning, or has a number 
of primary shoots growing from the base instead of a single 
trunk with laterals rising from it, will certainly give no such 
results. 

Regarding the best methods of picking and handling the fruit, 
Hodgson says : 

" On account of the common habit of spUtting, the fruit of most 
varieties must be picked before fully mature. . . . Some trees wiU 
hold their fruit until winter and never show any splits. 

" Fortunately, the pomegranate is one of those fruits which, after 
reaching a certain degree of maturity, continues to ripen in cold storage, 
where it will keep in excellent condition for five or six months. Not 
only does it ripen, but the quality is. improved, the flavor becoming 
richer and more' vinous. The rind shrinks and becomes thinner and 
tougher ; the amount of rag decreases ; and the seed coats appear to 
become more tender and edible. Several pickings should be made, 
the first about the first week in October, and two or three others at 
weekly intervals. 

" Pomegranates are very securely attached to the fruiting wood by 
thick, strong stems, and should be clipped rather than pulled. . . . 
After sizing, the fruit is wrapped in tissue paper and packed. The 
commercial package used is the orange half-box. . . . The sizes run 
from 24 to 110 per box." 

On this same subject Roeding ^ notes : " On account of its 
rather thick skin the fruit will withstand quite a lot of abuse. 
The one point to guard against is to pick the fruits before they 
are rained on, for when this occurs many of them will split, 
making them unfit for shipment. After they are gathered, the 
fruits, if stored in a cool, dry place, will keep for months ; the 
1 Roeding's Fruit Growers' Guide. 



382 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

skin loses its striking lustre, and the fruit shrinks some, but 
this in no way impairs the quality or flavor of the pulp." 

The pomegranate has several enemies, both insect and fun- 
gous. In India, the larvae of the anar butterfly (Virachola 
isocrates Fabr.) infest the fruit. A similar insect is the pome- 
granate butterfly of Egypt (Virachola livia Klug). Another 
lepidopterous pest, Cryptohlades gnidiella Miller, is also reported 
from Egypt. In California much damage has been caused by 
a disease known as heart-rot. "When an infected fruit is 
opened, the central cavity is found filled with a disgusting 
mass of decayed arils, black in color and disagreeable in odor. 
The decay usually shows no connection with the rind, being 
entirely surrounded by sound flesh. . . . Infection takes place 
in the blossom and progress of the fungus may be traced by a 
thread-like black line of decay from the stigma down through 
the stylar canal into the interior of the fruit." No remedy has 
been found for this disease up to the present time. 

Several insects occasionally attack the tree in California, 
but none is said to be a serious pest. In Hawaii, the dreaded 
Mediterranean fruit-fly {Ceratitis capitata Wied.) is known to 
infest the fruit. 

The varieties of the pomegranate are fairly numerous. Ibn- 
al-Awam, a Moor who wrote in the thirteenth century, described 
about ten kinds known in southern Spain at that time. At 
Baghdad, pomegranates are usually divided into three groups 
or classes, viz. : ahmar (red), aswad (black), and halwa (sweet). 
Several named varieties are known in Mesopotamia in a limited 
way, Salimi being considered the best. Ragawi, Halu, Aswad, 
and Amlasi are other forms. 

The late Frank N. Meyer, describing the pomegranates of the 
Shantung Province of China, says : " There are dwarf varieties 
that grow only a few feet tall and bear but a few small scarlet 
fruits, while others grow from 15 to 30 feet tall and bear fruits 
one or more pounds in weight. There are varieties that have a 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 383 

white rind and are red inside and other kinds that are white 
both outside and inside." 

Numerous varieties have been introduced into the United 
States from the Orient. Some of them are promising, but none 
is yet estabHshed in the trade. The following are the three 
principal varieties planted in those parts of the country where 
pomegranate culture is conducted commercially : 

Wonderful. — Form oblate ; size very large, the diameter sometimes 
5 inches ; base flattened ; apex rounded, crowned with the prominent 
calyx ; surface smooth, glossy, deep purple-red in color ; rind medium 
thick, tough ; flesh deep crimson in color, juicy, and of delicious vinous 
flavor ; seeds not very hard. 

Origin not definitely known; it was propagated at Porterville, 
California, in 1896, from a cutting obtained from Florida. Because 
of its vigor of growth, productiveness, and the excellent quality of its 
fruit, it has become the favorite commercial variety in California. 

Paper-Shell. — Form globose ; size large ; surface glossy, pale 
yellow washed with pink; rind very thin; flesh bright red in color, 
juicy, and of pleasant flavor ; seeds fairly tender. 

Origin not definitely known ; it was introduced into California 
from the southeastern United States. It is not so vigorous in growth 
as Wonderful, nor is the fruit so attractive, but it is productive and the 
fruit has good shipping quaUties. 

Spanish Ruby. — Form globose ; size large ; surface glossy, bright 
red in color ; rind moderately thick ; flesh crimson in color, juicy, of 
sweet aromatic flavor ; seeds fairly tender. 

Syns. Purple, Purple Seeded. A variety introduced into California 
from the southeastern United States. Commercially it is not im- 
portant. 

The Jubube 

(Zizyphus spp.) 

"The jujube," writes David Fairchild, "is one of the five 
principal fruits of China, and has been cultivated for at least 
4000 years." It is only in the large-fruited Chinese varieties 
that the jujube is seen at its best. The inferior fruits which have 
been grown in southern Europe, Arabia, and northern India 
either represent a different species from those of China, or are 



384 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



varieties which have not been so highly improved by cultivation 

and selection. 
Pliny recounted that the jujube was brought from Syria to 

Rome by the consul Sextus Papinius, towards the end of the 

reign of Augustus. It has, therefore, been known in southern 

Europe for more than 
2000 years. It reached 
America some time dur- 
ing the nineteenth cen- 
tury, but only in the 
form of seedlings which 
yielded fruit of poor 
quality. With the in- 
troduction of the grafted 
Chinese varieties, ob- 
tained in 1906 and sub- 
sequent years by the 
United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, 
the jujube has become 
a fruit-tree worthy of 
the serious attention of 
horticulturists, and this 
it is now receiving 
throughout the south- 
ern and western parts 
of the United States. 
The botanv of this 




Fig. 50. The langtsao, or "melting jujube" 
(Ziziphus Jujuba) , from the Province of Shensi, 
China, now grown in Cahfornia. The Chinese 
varieties of the jujube are better than those of 
other countries. (X 3) 



fruit is decidedly confused. Two species are cultivated in the 
Orient, differing but little from each other in botanical or 
horticultural characteristics. The Chinese jujube (Fig. 50) 
is considered to be Zizyphus Jujuba, Miller (Z. vulgaris, Lam., 
Z. saliva, Gaertn.), and the Indian jujube, Zizyphus mauritiana, 
Lam. (Z. Jujuba, Lam.). The principal difference between 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 385 

them seems to be that the leaves of the first-named are 
glabrous while those of the second are tomentose beneath. 
Further study will be required to show the proper classification 
of many cultivated forms. 

The jujube is a small, somewhat spiny tree reaching a height 
of 25 or 30 feet. Its leaves are alternate, three-nerved, elliptic- 
ovate, ovate, or suborbicular in outline, commonly 1| to 3 
inches in length. The small greenish flowers are produced upon 
slender deciduous branchlets, or occasionally upon the old wood. 
The fruit is a small drupe, elliptic or oblong to spherical in form, 
from I to 2 inches in length, with a thin dark brown skin, and 
having whitish flesh of crisp or mealy texture and sweet agreeable 
flavor, inclosing a hard two-celled stone, elliptic to oblate in 
form and rough on the surface. 

In searching botanical literature for data regarding the his- 
tory and distribution of the jujube, it is impossible to determine, 
in many cases, whether Z. Jujuha or Z. mauritiana is the species 
discussed. One or the other (probably both in some instances) 
is cultivated in China, in the Philippines, through the Malayan 
region to India and Africa, and westward through Afghanistan, 
Persia, Arabia, and Asia Minor to the Mediterranean coast of 
France, Spain, and North Africa. In China the general name is 
tsao; in India Z. Jujuha is called the common jujube, anah, un- 
nah, while Z. mauritiana is called the Indian jujube, her, hor, and 
the like. In Arabia the common term for one species is nahk. 

The late Frank N. Meyer, to whom we are indebted for many 
fine Chinese varieties of this fruit, observed, during his explora- 
tions in China, that the jujube could be used in several different 
ways. The fresh fruits of some varieties are excellent to eat 
out of hand. Dried, they resemble dates in character. Jujubes 
are sometimes boiled with millet and rice ; they may be stewed 
or baked in the oven; they are used, raisin fashion, to make 
jujube-bread ; and they are turned into glace fruits by boiling 

them in honey and sugar sirup. Meyer particularly lauds the 

2c 



386 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

mi-tsao, or honey-jujube. "To prepare this," he says, "the 
Chinese take large, sound, dried fruits and boil them thoroughly 
in sugared water, after which they are taken out and dried in 
the sun or wind for a couple of days. When sufficiently dry 
they are given a slight boiling again and are partly dried. 
When dry enough to be handled, the skin is slightly slashed 
lengthwise with a few small knives tied together. Then the 
fruits are given a third boiling; now, however, in a stronger 
sugar water, and for the best grades of honey-jujube honey is 
added. When this process is finished they are spread out to 
dry, and when no longer sticky are ready to be sold." 

A chemical analysis of the Chinese jujube made by the Bureau 
of Chemistry at Washington showed it to contain : Total 
solids 31.9 per cent, ash 0.73, acids 0.29, protein 1.44, total sugar 
21.66 (sucrose 9.66, invert sugar 12.00), fat 0.21, hydrolyzable 
carbohydrates 2.47 and fiber 1.28. 

Regarding the climatic and soil requirements of the jujube, 
Fairchild^ writes: 

"No weather appears to be too hot for it, and so far as resistance 
to cold is concerned, it has withstood temperatures of 22° F. without 
injury. Just how much lower winter temperatures it will withstand 
has not yet been determined. The range of territory, however, over 
which it is likely to prove a success as a fruit tree will probably be 
limited more by the length of the summer season than by the severity 
of the winter. The whole Southwest, with the exception of the elevated 
areas where cold summer nights occur ... is a promising region in 
which to test the jujube. It enjoys brilliant sunshine, dry weather, 
and long, intensely hot summers, and although it will form good sized 
trees under other conditions, it appears to require these climatic 
factors to make it fruit early in life, regularly, and abundantly. 

"As regards soU conditions, it appears to withstand slight amounts 
of alkali and to thrive with special vigor on the loess, or wind-drifted 
soil formations of China. . . . Under irrigation in northern California, 
and without irrigation in Central Texas, the trees have grown luxu- 
riantly and fruited abundantly. In the warm humid region of Mary- 
land, seedling trees have grown well, but fruited sparingly and irregu- 
larly. In Georgia, old seedling jujubes have fruited well." 

1 Journal of Heredity, Jan., 1918. 





Plate XX. Upper, the rambutan and other fruits ; lower, a basket 
of green sapotes. 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 387 

R. L. Beagles ^ says : "The jujube has endured a temperature 
of 13° F. at the Chico Station without any perceptible injury ; 
it also withstands extreme heat, a temperature of 111° F. 
producing no apparent bad effects on trees and young 
grafted plants. ... The tree starts into growth very late 
in the spring, which eliminates any danger from frost, and 
makes it a sure cropper. The fruits ripen in October and 
November." 

Meyer ^ writes regarding the cultivation of the jujube in 
China : 

" In general, jujubes are grown in small groves or as single trees, 
but here and there one also meets regular orchards of them, covering 
perhaps 10 or 20 acres. In some localities the farmers plant them in 
rows through the fields. It seems that planted in this way, at a 
distance of five to ten feet apart, they produce the largest quantity and 
best quality of fruit. When in regular orchards the distance apart 
is from 15 to 25 feet, depending upon the variety and upon the personal 
preference of the planter. 

"The farmers, here and there, also have the practice of ringing 
their trees every year, claiming that thereby they considerably increase 
the crop. The jujube is about the only fruit tree around the roots of 
which the soil is not regularly cultivated, because the yield is found to 
be just as large without this work as with it." 

Propagation is effected by seeds, grafting, root-cuttings, and 
one or two other means. Meyer reports regarding the methods 
employed in China : " As the varieties do not come true to 
seed, the trees are mostly propagated by the suckers which are 
nearly always found at their bases. Root cuttings can also 
be taken. Some varieties, however, do not readily produce 
suckers, and root cuttings are not successful. Then the 
Chinese resort to grafting the cions on wild stock. This graft- 
ing practice, however, seems to be confined to only a few local- 
ities, where the growers are men of considerable experience." 

1 California Citrograph, Oct., 1917. 

2 BuU. 204, Bur. Plant Industry. 



388 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The most satisfactory method of propagating the Chinese 
varieties in California has been whip-grafting. Seedling 
jujubes are used for stock-plants. These are easily grown, 
although the seeds (which are sown in drills in the open ground) 
are slow to germinate and it takes two years to produce a good 
plant. At one year of age many of them will be large enough 
to graft, but it is better to leave them until the second year. 

J. E. Morrow, who has had experience in propagating the 
jujube at the United States Plant Introduction Field Station 
at Chico, California, notes that plants grafted in February 
sometimes grow to a height of three or four feet before the end 
of the year and mature a few fruits. He says further : 

" The jujube root is one which does not like to be disturbed, and for 
quick results, and where climatic conditions will permit, I would ad- 
vocate field-grafting on two-year-old roots. The cions are inserted 
close to the root, and covered with soil, which should not, however, 
be over one inch in depth above the top of the cion, so that when the 
ground settles after a hard rain the young plant will stiU be able to 
force its way through it. 

" The argument in favor of bench-grafting is this : it may be done 
when the soil is too muddy or cold to permit outside work. The stock- 
plants are cut off just above the root, or the larger roots themselves 
are used as stocks. Upon these a cion about four inches long and of the 
diameter of a lead penicl is whip-grafted, and wrapped with raf&a. 
A wedge-graft may be used if the stock is much larger than the cion. 
The grafts are then packed in boxes, between layers of moistened cedar 
or redwood sawdust or ' shingletow.' The box should be kept where 
temperature remains between 40° and 50°. In about a month cal- 
luses should have formed, and the grafts may be planted in the field. 
Grafting may be done in California any time in February or March, 
and the plants should go into the field not later than April 1. Cions 
may be cut between the first of December and the first of February, 
and stored until wanted for use." 

The jujube is precocious and prolific in fruiting, and rarely 
fails to produce a good crop. Meyer observed in China that 
the plants begin to decline in vigor and productiveness after 
twenty-five or thirty years, and rarely live more than forty 



THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE 389 

years. There are many varieties known in China, and not a few 
in other countries. Meyer has described ten of the best Chinese 
kinds in Bulletin 204, quoted above : most of these have been 
introduced into the United States and some have already pro- 
duced fruit here. The best are considered to be the Yu, the 
Mu shing hong, and the Lang. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 

Of the Guttiferse or Garcinia family few plants are grown for 
fruit, and the mangosteen is the chief one. It is a tropical family 
of nearly 400 species and 30 to 40 genera. The family yields 
drugs, gums, and resins. 

The Mangosteen (Plate XXIV ) 
(Garcinia Mangostana, L.) 

Since the days when early voyagers returned to Europe with 
more or less fabulous stories of the wonders of the East, the 
mangosteen has received unstinted praise. It has been termed 
the "Queen of Fruits," "the finest fruit in the world," and 
Jacobus Bontius, who compared it to nectar and ambrosia, said, 
that it surpassed the golden apples of the Hesperides and was " of 
all the fruits of the Indies by far the most delicious." Bontius 
was warranted in his enthusiasm. The combination of beauti- 
ful coloring with delicate enticing flavor entitles the mangosteen 
to rank above all other fruits of the Asiatic tropics. Indeed, 
it is doubtful whether the world possesses another tropical 
fruit which is its equal. It compares favorably with the most 
delicately flavored fruits of the Temperate Zone; Europeans 
and Americans who have been accustomed to the finely flavored 
peaches, nectarines, and pears of northern orchards find it 
delicious and unexceptionable, although they may criticize other 
tropical fruits as being insipid or mawkish. 

390 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 391 

Yet, strangely enough, this "prize of the Indies," admitted 
by all to be the finest fruit of the tropics, remains to this day 
extremely limited in its distribution, and known only to the 
favored few who have lived or traveled in the East Indies. 
David Fairchild, who has studied its requirements more ex- 
haustively than any other man, is convinced " that the acclima- 
tization of the mangosteen on the island of Porto Rico, and in 
many other parts of tropical America, is a possibility, and that 
the principal difficulties of its culture have probably arisen 
from an ignorance of the soil conditions demanded by the 
plant." Trees have fruited in Jamaica, Dominica, and Trinidad. 
There is a fruiting tree in Hawaii and a few others are scattered 
throughout the tropics in regions where it would have been 
said a few years ago that mangosteens could not be grown. 
There are grounds for the hope, therefore, that commercial 
production of this delectable fruit will not remain limited to a 
remote region in the eastern tropics. 

The mangosteen is a small tree rarely over 30 feet high, with 
deep green foliage which glistens in the sunlight. The leaves 
are elliptic-oblong in form, acuminate at the tip, thick and 
leathery in texture, and 6 to 10 inches long. The flowers are 
polygamous ; the staminate or male blossoms are borne in 
three- to nine-flowered terminal fascicles, and have orbicular 
sepals and broadly ovate, fleshy petals. The hermaphrodite 
flower is 2 inches broad, and is borne solitary or in pairs at the 
tips of the young branches. The sepals and petals resemble 
those of the male flower. The stamens are many, the ovary f our- 
to eight-celled, with a sessile, eight-rayed stigma. 

" This delicious fruit is about the size of a mandarin orange, round 
and slightly flattened at each end, with a smooth, thick rind, rich 
red-purple in color, with here and there a bright, hardened drop of 
the yellow juice which marks some injury to the rind when it was 
young. As these mangosteens are sold in the Dutch East Indies, 
— heaped up on fruit baskets, or made into long- regular bundles with 
thin strips of braided bamboo, — they are as strikingly handsome as 



392 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

anything of the kind could well be, but it is only when the fruit is 
opened that its real beauty is seen. The rind is thick and tough, 
and in order to get at the pulp inside, it requires a circular cut with 
a sharp knife to Uft the top half off like a cap, exposing the white 
segments, five, six, or seven in number, lying loose in the cup. The 
cut surface of the rind is of a moist delicate pink color and is studded 
with small yellow points formed by the drops of exuding juice. As 
one lifts out of this cup, one by one, the delicate segments, which are 
the size and shape of those of a mandarin orange, the light pink sides 
of the cup and the veins of white and yellow embedded in it are visible. 
The separate segments are between snow white and ivory in color, 
and are covered with a delicate network of fibers, and the side of each 
segment where it presses against its neighbor is translucent and slightly 
tinged with pale green. The texture of the mangosteen pulp much 
resembles that of a well-ripened plum, only it is so delicate that it 
melts in the mouth like a bit of ice-cream. The flavor is quite in- 
describably delicious. There is nothing to mar the perfection of this 
fruit, unless it be that the juice from the rind forms an indelible stain 
on a white napkin. Even the seeds are partly or wholly lacking, 
and when present are very thin and small." (Fairchild.) 

Regarding the native home of the mangosteen, the classical 
Alphonse DeCandolle says : " The species is certainly wild in the 
forests of the Sunda Islands and of the Malay Peninsula. 
Among cultivated plants it is one of the most local, both in its 
origin, habitation, and in cultivation. It belongs, it is true, to 
one of those families in which the mean area of the species is- 
most restricted." 

The mangosteen is a common dooryard tree in the East 
Indies, particularly in Java and Sumatra. Much of the fruit 
sold in the markets comes from scattered trees. There are a 
few small Orchards in Malacca and the Straits Settlements. 
The largest orchard in the world (containing, however, only 
300 or 400 trees) is situated near Saigon, in Cochin-China. 
A few small orchards have been started in Ceylon, but mango- 
steens are not as abundant in that island as they are in the 
Malay Archipelago. So far as is known, the tree is not com- 
monly grown anywhere in India, but there are said to be a few 
specimens in the Madras Presidency. Mangosteens grown in 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 393 

the Sulu Archipelago of the PhiHppines are often seen in the 
markets of Manila. 

Concerning the behavior of this plant in the Hawaiian 
Islands, Gerrit P. Wilder says : "Many mangosteen trees have 
been brought to Hawaii, and have received intelligent care, 
but they have not thrived well, and have eventually died. 
Only two have ever produced fruit, one in the garden of Mr. 
Francis Gay of Kauai, which bears its fruit annually, and the 
other at Lahaina, Maui, in the garden formerly the property of 
Mr. Harry Turton." 

Joseph Jones, curator of the Botanic Station at Dominica, in 
the British West Indies, writes in the Agricultural News 
(March 4, 1911): 

" At the Point Mulatre estate, Dominica, two fine mangosteen 
trees, thirteen years old, are now fruiting for the first time. One 
specimen is bearing several dozen fruits, and the other a single fruit. 
There are known to be four bearing mang steen trees in Dominica. 
As quite a number of estates possess a few young specimens of this 
interesting tree, it is probable that in the course of a few years the fruit 
will be fairly well known in the island, and may, in course of time, 
be available for export. 

" One point in this connection is worthy of notice. The seedlings 
raised from trees established in the West Indies show much greater 
vigor, and thrive better, than did the original imported plants. This 
is probably due to acclimatization. With this increased vigor, and 
with great care in growing and selecting land and position, it may be 
possible to bring trees into fruit during their ninth or tenth year." 

The Trinidad and Tobago Bulletin for January, 1914, says : 

" In Government House Gardens there is a tree of the mangosteen 
which has now borne fruit more or less regularly for several years. 
There are also a few other fruiting trees in the Colony, e.g., at Arima 
in the grounds of Mr. J. G. de Gannes and at Monte Cristo estate, 
the property of Mr. H. Monceaux. 

" In addition to the old tree in the Government House Gardens 
there is another which has not yet borne fruit, and a group at St. 
Clair Experiment Station. The latter are now 11 years old and this 
month (January, 1914) one of them bore a single fruit for the first 
time. The age of this tree is definitely known as they were planted 



394 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

personally by Mr. J. C. Augustus, now the Curator of the Gardens. 
It will be of interest to know from others who have trees of any 
definite records of the age at which they begin to bear fruit in the 
Colony." 

A number of trees have been planted in Cuba, the Canal 
Zone, and Porto Rico, but so far as known none of them is yet 
fruiting. In California and Florida there appears to be little 
hope for the mangosteen, since it is highly susceptible to frost- 
injury. If stock-plants are discovered which will impart 
hardiness, there is a possibility that it may yet be grown in the 
most protected situations in southern Florida. 

The name mangosteen (in French mangoustan) is of Malayan 
origin. Yule and Burnell derive it "from Malay manggusta 
(Crawfurd), or manggistan (Favre), in Javanese manggis. . . . 
This delicious fruit is known throughout the Archipelago, and in 
Siam, by modifications of the same name." Botanically the 
species is Garcinia Mangostana, L. 

The fruit is eaten fresh. The rind, or the entire fruit dried, 
is used medicinally in India. It contains tannin and a crystal- 
lizable substance known as mangostin. According to Carl 
Wehmer ^ the fresh fruit contains sugar as follows : Saccharose 
10.8, dextrose 1, and levulose 1.2. 

Cultivation. • 

Horticultural writers have asserted that the mangosteen 
can be grown only within four or five degrees of the equator. 
Experience has shown that such a statement is not warranted 
by facts. It is true that the tree is strictly tropical in its 
requirements and that its demands in regard to soil conditions 
are definite. There is no reason, however, to assume that it 
will not be possible to grow mangosteens successfully through- 
out the tropics wherever these conditions can be met. Fair- 
child considers that the unduly limited distribution of the 
1 Die Pflanzenstoffe. 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 395 

tree is due to the difficulty which young plants have in estab- 
lishing themselves, and he believes that a vast extension of 
mangosteen culture will take place when the root-system of 
this tree is thoroughly understood. "This may come about 
through the use of stocks which are less particular in their 
soil requirements. George Oliver's experiments have proved 
that the mangosteen can successfully be inarched upon a 
number of the related species of the same genus." Thus, on 
Garcinia xantliochyinus , a vigorous and hardy species, it has 
done remarkably well. Since more than 150 species of Garcinia 
are known, there should be excellent possibilities of obtaining 
a stock-plant which will produce robust mangosteen trees 
on soils where they will not grow successfully on their own 
roots. 

The mangosteen does not withstand frost, but the behavior 
of trees in Cuba and elsewhere shows that it is not injured by 
merely cool weather; that is, the constantly high temperatures 
of the equatorial belt are not essential to its success. Like the 
breadfruit and a few other strictly tropical species, it does not 
like temperatures below 40° or thereabouts. In Ceylon and 
Singapore the best orchards are on soils having a high clay- 
content, combined with plenty of coarse material and a small 
amount of silt, and where the water-table stands about six feet 
below the surface. " The impression is turrent," says Fairchild, 
" that the mangosteen requires a wet but well-drained soil and a 
very humid atmosphere. While the former statement appears 
to be true, the latter is not so, for the tree which has fruited on 
the island of Kauai (Hawaii) is in a dry but irrigated part of 
the island, with only six inches of rainfall, where it has to be 
irrigated twice a month." 

The observations made by Fairchild during his studies of 
mangosteen culture in the Orient are of such importance that 
it is worth while to reproduce some of them here. He writes of 
his visit to W. H. Wright at Mirigama, Ceylon : 



396 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

" His orchard consisted, at the time of my visit in 1902, of 23 
trees and was then probably the largest in the colony. It was from 
eight to ten years old, having been planted with two-year-old trees 
which were sent him as a present from the Malay peninsula. The 
selection of a site for his orchard was a very happy one ; a moist spot 
in his coconut plantation, a part of which had at one time been used 
as a rice field. The ground was so moist that open drains were cut 
through it to carry off the superfluous water and these are still kept 
in order. The soil of the squares on which the trees are growing is 
so moist and soft that, were it not for a layer of coconut husks, one's 
feet would sink in up to the ankle as he walks across them. The 
roots, under these circumstances, are bathed continually in fresh, 
not stagnant, moisture. Mr. Wright attributes his success in growing 
mangosteens to the fact that he has planted them on soil that never 
dries out, but has, at a few feet from the surface, a continual supply 
of fresh moisture. The water in his weU, near by, is six feet from the 
surface of the ground. H. L. Daniel, who has been for 15 years 
trying to grow this fruit, and who, during that time, has planted over 
a hundred young trees, assures me that this is one of the secrets of 
the culture of this difficult fruit, and gives Mr. Wright credit for 
first finding it out. 

"Another important detail relates to the matter of transplanting 
the young seedlings. Mr. Daniel plants the seeds in a small pot 
or coconut husk, and keeps them weU watered and slightly shaded 
with a coarse matting of coconut leaves. He transplants them from 
this small pot to a larger one when the roots have filled it ; and in 
removing he cuts off the tap-root if the latter is exposed. For two 
years these young plants are kept in pots and grow to a height of two 
to two and a half feet. It is useless to transplant them before they 
are at least two feet high, for the check given them, if too young, 
by the transplanting is so great that they refuse to grow. 

" When transplanted, the plants are set in a hole three feet cube 
in size. Stiff soil is best but is not absolutely necessary, as they will 
grow in a light soil if the subsoil is a good paddy mud. From the 
first the young trees should be shaded with a matting of coconut 
leaves, which is suspended two feet or so above the top of the plant. 
This is to prevent wilting and subsequent death of the two red, partly 
developed leaves, which first appear from the seed, and which must 
be kept alive if the plant is to make a rapid growth. If these pre- 
cautions of potting, shading, and selection of soil are followed, trees 
should come into bearing seven years from seed, producing a small crop 
of a hundred fruits or so. The subsequent treatment of the mangosteen 
orchard seems to be very simple, — no pruning of any kind is commonly 
practiced, although it might be advisable to prune ; and little culti- 
vating is done. A mulch of coconut husks about the base of the tree 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 397 

to keep the surface soil continually moist, and the application of a 
small amount of earth from the poultry-yard, sprinkled about under- 
neath the trees each year, are the only attentions given them. Whether 
or not artificial fertilizers could be employed with profitable effect 
is a question that has not been answered." 

In the same article ^ Fairchild writes of mangosteen culture 
in another region : 

" In Singapore there are some smaU mangosteen orchards, that 
is, mangosteens mixed with other fruits. One which is easily acces- 
sible lies on the well-known road to the Botanic Gardens, some two 
miles from the RaiHes Hotel. The land is low and wet and several 
drainage canals cut it up into large, square blocks. The soil is clay 
and evidently saturated with moisture. About each tree is a cir- 
cular bit of cultivated soil, the rest being in grass, and scattered 
over the bare soil under the trees is a mulch of leaves and coconut 
husks. I do not know how old the orchard is, but it is presumably 
about 30 years of age. . . . Dr. Ridley, then Director of the Botanic 
Gardens in Singapore, remarked that though apparently in excellent 
condition this orchard was not productive. It was his belief that it 
needed pruning and his experience with a tree in Government House 
Gardens bears out his belief. He cut out the innermost branches 
from one of the lot of old mangosteen trees there, which had not 
borne well for years, and as a consequence it produced, the next year, 
an abundance of fruit. His opinion is that the trees should regularly 
be pruned of aU the smaU inner branches." 

Regarding the behavior of the mangosteen in Hawaii, Fair- 
child says : " Francis Gay, who planted the tree at IMakaweli, 
Kauai, wrote that where the tree is growing the water is about 
six feet below the surface of the soil, that the tree is irrigated 
twice or three times a month, and that the rainfall of the region 
is six to seven inches a year. This tree of Mr. Gay's is about 25 
years old, fruited first when ten years old and now bears only 
a few fruits per year. ... It stands about 15 feet above sea- 
level in a spot well-protected from the winds by windbreaks 
and is growing on a sandy, alluvial soil." 

1 Journal of Heredity, Aug., 1915. 



398 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Propagation. 

The work of George W. Oliver in the greenhouses of the 
Department of Agriculture at Washington has thrown much 
light on the requirements of young mangosteen plants, and on 
the best methods of propagation. The following extracts are 
taken from his report in Bulletin 202 of the Bureau of Plant 
Industry, "The Seedling-inarch and Nurse-plant Methods of 
Propagation." 

" Few plants show the results of inattention on the part of the 
cultivator more plainly than the mangosteen. When once a plant 
becomes in the least sickly, there is little likelihood of its recovery 
on its own roots. The mangosteen does not take kindly to heavy 
soils ; it prefers a well-drained soil containing a large proportion of 
decayed vegetable matter. When seedlings are removed from flats 
and put in pots some will die without apparent cause. An over- 
supply of water causing the soil to become in the least sour is certain 
to induce sickness much more quickly in the mangosteen than in 
other species of the genus. Therefore, great care is necessary in 
handling the plants, especially in the early stages of the seedlings. 

" Unfortunately the mangosteen is not a strong-rooting plant, 
especially during the first year or two after germination. This pecul- 
iarity renders it particularly sensitive to dry weather and may account 
in part for the many failures to grow it successfully. Nearly all 
the other species of the genus have strong and abundant roots, even 
in the seedling stages. It therefore seems likely that the mangosteen 
will thrive better and under more widely varjdng soil and atmospheric 
conditions if the young plant is inarched to some species of the genus 
which has a good root system. 

" The genus Garcinia is a large one, the Index Kewensis listing 
228 species. Of these about 20 have been tried in the inarching 
experiments ; and while the mangosteen unites with all of them, 
only a few can be recommended as promising stock-plants. Two 
other genera of the same family, Calophyllum and Platonia, have 
been tried. Two species of Calophyllum, C. calaba and C. inophyllum, 
are not satisfactory because the union between these and the mango- 
steen is imperfect. This is partly because the stems of the Calophyllums 
are softer than those of the seedling mangosteen and partly because 
the growth made by the former as they become older is much more 
rapid. Platonia insignis (see below), on the other hand, so far as 
the experimental work has progressed, is a very promising stock 
from one to three years after germination, and if it will grow under 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 399 

the conditions suitable for the mangosteen, it may turn out to be 
the best stock of all those tried. The most promising species of 
Garcinia for use as stock-plants for the mangosteen are G. tincioria, 
G. morella, and G. Livingstonei, in the order named, the last a native 
of Portuguese East Africa. The two first named are from the Malay 
Peninsula." 

Recent experiments have shown that G. xanthochyrmis is also 
promising. It is vigorous in growth, and adapted to many 
types of soil. Inarching the mangosteen is a simple process, 
essentially the same as inarching the mango. Oliver says 
further : 

" None of the species of Garcinia used as stocks are difficult to 
raise from seeds, provided they are fresh. They are easiest to ger- 
minate when sown in soil composed largely of partially decomposed 
leaves mixed with a little loam and rough-grained sand. They 
should be potted as soon as the first leaves are well developed. All 
the Garcinias with the exception of G. Mangostana have magnificent 
root systems and they thrive under ordinary treatment in so far as 
soil watering and a considerable range of temperature are concerned. 

"It is an important point to have the stock plants in an active 
stage of growth when the union is in progress, though the seedling 
mangosteens may be inarched while apparently dormant. Although 
the unions when both stock and cion are in a resting stage are fairly 
satisfactory, the difference in growth is easily observable when the 
stock plants are in active growth. To secure this active growth the 
stocks should be allowed to become dormant ; then, when they are 
given larger pots, good drainage, and soil composed of rotted leaves, 
at least one-half, and the rest fibrous loam containing a little rough- 
grained sand, together with some rough charcoal and crushed bone, 
they will under high temperature respond with vigorous growth. 
When inarched in this condition the union is always satisfactory. 

" All plants used as stocks have been from one to three years old. 
Within that period the age of the stocks seems to make little dif- 
ference, especially when used as nurse stocks. Mangosteen seed- 
lings seven months old united on nurse-stocks of three-year-old Gar- 
cinia tinctoria made very fine unions, and within six months after 
the union some of the mangosteen stems were almost as thick as those 
of the stocks." 

P. J. Wester states that the mangosteen can be budded, and 
says : " Use mature, green and smooth, nonpetioled budwood ; 



400 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

cut the buds an inch and a half long; insert the buds in the 
stock at a point of the same appearance as the cion or at most 
where it is streaked with gray." 

These methods of propagating the mangosteen are of recent 
inception but they promise to be of immense value in extending 
the area in which the tree can be grown, as well as in permitting 
the establishment of superior varieties, which is not possible 
when seed-propagation is the only means used. Fairchild 
writes : " When one considers that so far no selection of varie- 
ties of the mangosteen has been made, notwithstanding the 
fact that practically seedless fruits are of frequent occurrence, 
and further that the tree belongs to a large genus of fruit- 
bearing trees, at least fifteen of which are known to bear edible 
fruits, some of them as large as small melons, and that these are 
scattered in Australia, the Malay region, South China, Africa, 
Brazil, and Central America, it becomes evident that in the 
development and breeding of the mangosteen and in the dis- 
covery of a suitable stock for it, there lies a most promising field 
for horticultural research." 

Season and enemies of the mangosteen. 

Seedling trees may begin to bear fruit when seven or eight 
years old, but it is rare for them to do so before the ninth 
year. It is not yet known how many years will be required for 
an inarched or budded tree to come into bearing. In Ceylon 
the trees are said to bloom twice a year, once in August and 
again in January. The fruit from the first crop of flowers 
ripens in January, and that from the second in July and August. 
In Trinidad the fruiting seasons are said to be July and 
October. The January crop in Ceylon is a light one, not over 
100 fruits to a tree, while in the August crop 500 to 600 fruits 
a tree may be expected. 

As to marketing, Fairchild says : " Although the mangosteen 
is a very delicate fruit, it has an exceedingly tough, thick rind. 




Plate XXI. A young kaki tree in bearing. 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 401 

and on this account it is likely to be a good shipper. Fruits 
which were sent in cold storage to Washington from Trinidad 
were excellent when eaten twenty-one days later, even though 
they had been out of cold storage over a week." Shipments 
are regularly made from the Straits Settlements to the markets 
of Calcutta. When the fruits decay, the rind hardens instead 
of becoming soft. 

Little is known regarding the enemies of the mangosteen. 
W. N. C. Belgrave ^ reports a fungous parasite, Zignoella 
garcinecB, which causes the formation of cankers on the stems, 
working back from the young to the older branches. W'hen 
the latter have been attacked, the foliage withers and eventually 
the entire tree dies. As a combative measure it is recommended 
to cut and burn trees which are attacked, in order to check the 
spread of the disease. 

There are as yet no named varieties of the mangosteen in 
cultivation. 

The Mamey 
{Mammea americana, L.) 

Christopher Columbus, after his first visit to Veragua in 1502, 
is said to have described the mamey as a fruit the size of a 
large lemon, with the flavor of the peach. Gonzalo Hernandez 
de Oviedo, about twenty years later, described it more fully and 
reported it as most excellent. 

As a horticultural product, the mamey remains in very 
much the same position which it occupied at the time of the 
Discovery. It is a dooryard tree, nowhere cultivated on a 
commercial scale, but considered by the Indians a delicious fruit. 
Europeans who have settled in tropical America have learned 
that it yields a preserve which tastes remarkably like that made 
from the apricot. 

1 Agr. BuU. of the Federated Malay States, 3, 1915. 
2d 



402 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The tree, which is one of the most beautiful and conspicuous 
in the West Indies, reaches 60 feet in height. Its trunk some- 
times attains a diameter of 3 or 4 feet, while the crown is of a 
deeper and richer green than that of most other trees. The 
leaves are oblong-obovate in form, rounded or blunt at the 
apex, 4 to 8 inches long, and thick and glossy. The white 
flowers, which are solitary or clustered in the axils of the young 
shoots, are fragrant and about an inch broad. The petals are 
four to six in number, the anthers numerous, and the stigma 
peltate. The fruit is oblate to round in form, and commonly 
4 to 6 inches in diameter. It has a slightly roughened russet 
surface and a leathery skin about | inch thick. Surrounding 
the one to four large seeds and often adhering to them is the 
bright yellow flesh, juicy but of firm texture. The flavor is 
subacid and pleasant, but the texture is so close that the fruit 
is commonly thought better when stewed. 

The mamey is considered indigenous in the West Indies 
and the northern part of South America. Outside of its native 
region it is grown in Mexico and Central America, and occasion- 
ally in other regions, but it has not become common anywhere 
in the Orient, so far as is known. It is successfully cultivated in 
southern Florida as far north as Palm Beach. Though not 
common in this region, fine specimens are occasionally seen at 
Miami and other places. It is not grown in California, being 
too susceptible to frost for any part of that state. 

Mamey, the name by which this fruit was known to the first 
Spanish settlers in the New World, is considered to have come 
from the aboriginal language of the island of Santo Domingo. 
From it have arisen the English common names mammee and 
mammee-apple, both widely used in the West Indies. The 
term mamey de Santo Domingo is sometimes used in Cuba and 
other Spanish-speaking countries to distinguish the species 
from the mamey Colorado or mamey zapote {Lucuma mammosa). 
In southern Brazil it is known as abrico do Para (Para apricot). 
The most usual French name is ahricot de Saint Domingue. 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 403 

From the fragrant white flowers a hqueur is distilled in the 
French West Indies which is known as eau de Creole or creme de 
Creole. The wood is hard, durable, and well adapted to build- 
ing purposes. It is beautifully grained and takes a high polish. 
The resinous gum obtained from the bark is used to extract 
chigoes from the feet. 

The fruit is sometimes sliced and served with wine or with 
sugar and cream, but it is usually preferred by Europeans in the 
form of sauce, preserves, or jam. Mamey preserves are manufac- 
tured commercially in Cuba and a few other tropical countries. 

The mamey is tropical in its requirements, and cannot be 
grown in regions which commonly experience more than two or 
three degrees of frost. Large trees were cut back to the trunks 
by a freeze of 26° above zero at Miami, Florida. While the best 
soil for it is a rich, well-drained, sandy loam, the tree has made 
good growth on the shallow sandy lands of southeastern Florida. 
Little attention has been given to its culture in any region. 
Seedlings do not come into bearing under six or seven years of 
age ; when mature they usually bear regularly and abundantly. 
The ripening season in the West Indies is in the summer. 

Propagation is usually by seeds, which germinate readily if 
planted in light sandy loam. Some asexual method should be em- 
ployed to propagate desirable varieties originating as chance seed- 
lings. Inarching, which succeeds with the mangosteen, should be 
applicable to this plant as well ; budding may also prove to be 
successful, performed as with the mango. No named varieties 
have been established as yet. It will be worth while to search out 
the best existing seedlings in tropical America and propagate them. 

The Bakuri 

{Platonia insignis, Mart.) 

In northern Brazil, particularly in the Amazon region, the 
bakm'i occurs wild. It is scarcely known in cultivation, but 



404 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



the fruit gathered from trees in the forest is preserved in tins 
and sold commercially to a limited extent. The genus Platonia 
contains only one or two species. 

The tree is described as large, with oblong, acute, leathery 
leaves. The flowers are solitary, terminal, rose-colored, and 
showy. J. Barbosa Rodrigues ^ says that the fruits are the size 

of oranges, bright yel- 
low in color, with sev- 
eral seeds surrounded by 
white pulp. The flavor 
is acidulous, sprightly, 
and very pleasant. 

Jacques Huber of 
Para, Brazil, writes : 
"The bakuri is a hardy 
tree with us and does 
not require careful cul- 
tivation. Cut down, it 
springs up easily from 
suckers which arise from 
the roots. In Marajo 
it is considered a weed, 
difficult to exterminate, 
especially in pastures 
near houses." 

The bakuri is some- 
times listed botanically 
as Aristoclesia esculenta, 
Stuntz. In Brazil it has been ofi"ered by nurserymen under 
the common name bakupari, which properly belongs to a 
species of Rheedia. 

The tree is probably strictly tropical in its requirements. 
It should repay horticultural attention. 

^ Hortus Fluminensis. 




Fig. 51. The bakupari {Rheedia brasilien- 
sis), a Brazilian relative of the mangosteen. 
The skin is yellow, and the white pulp subacid 
and spicy in flavor. (X J) 



THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES 405 

The Bakupari (Fig. 51) 
{Rheedia brasiliensis, Planch. & Triana) 

This handsome tree is indigenous to the state of Rio de Janeiro 
in southeastern Brazil. It closely resembles its near relative 
the bakuri {Platonia insignis). The fruit is smaller in size than 
that of the latter species, and, while not considered so delicious, 
is highly prized by the natives, especially when prepared in the 
form of a doce or jam. 

The tree, which is said to flower in December and ripen its 
fruit in January and February, is little known in cultivation. 
The fruit is ovate in form, sharp at the apex, and about li inches 
long. It is orange-yellow in color and has a tough, leathery skin 
surrounding translucent snow-white pulp in which two oblong 
seeds are embedded. The flavor is subacid, suggesting that of 
the mangosteen. 

Several other species of Rheedia produce edible fruits, but 
none of them is well known in cultivation. R. edulis, Planch. 
& Triana, is occasionally cultivated in Brazil under the name 
of limdo do matto (wild lemon) ; it is a small, handsome tree 
with oblong glossy-green leaves and elliptic yellow fruits 2 
inches long. The white pulp is highly acid. R. macrophylla, 
Mart., is said by Jacques Huber to be cultivated at Para under 
the name of bacury-jjary. Its fruits are said to resemble those 
of Platonia insignis, but are somewhat smaller and more acid. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 

Notwithstanding their very different appearance, the 
breadfruits are of the same family (Moracese) as the mul- 
berries, fig, and osage orange. The breadfruits, however, 
are tropical, whereas the fig is grown as a warm- temperate 
and subtropical fruit. The genus Artocarpus, comprising 
the breadfruit and its relatives, includes some 30 species. 

The Breadfruit (Figs. 52, 53) 
(Artocarpus communis, Forst.) 

Among the horticultural products brought to the atten- 
tion of Europeans by the early voyagers to the East, few were 
considered of such interest and value as the breadfruit. The. 
importance of its introduction into the British colonies in the 
West Indies was felt to be so great that His Majesty's govern- 
ment toward the end of the eighteenth century fitted out an 
expedition for the sole purpose of transporting the plants from 
Tahiti, in Polynesia, to Jamaica and other islands in the Ameri- 
can tropics. On the failure of this expedition, due to the 
mutiny of the crew, a second and successful one was under- 
taken. 

Contrary to expectations, the breadfruit did not prove of 
great value to the West Indian colonies. The banana is 
more productive and gives more prompt returns, and the 
negroes preferred to continue eating a fruit to which they 

406 



THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 407 

were accustomed rather than trouble to cultivate the taste 
for a new one. 

In Polynesia, however, the breadfruit still retains the im- 
portant position which it occupied at the time the region 
was first visited by Europeans. There it is a staple food and 




Fig. 52. The breadfruit {Artocarpus communis) is one of the staple foodstuffs 
of the Polynesians. It is cultivated on a limited scale in tropical America, where 
it was introduced toward the end of the eighteenth century. (X about j) 

really entitled, by reason of its starchy character and the role 
which it plays in the native dietary, to the name which has 
been bestowed on it by the English. 

The tree, when well grown, is one of the handsomest to be 
seen within the tropics. It reaches a height of 40 to 60 feet, and 
has large, ovate, leathery leaves which are entire at the base 



408 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



and three- to nine-lobed toward the upper end. Male and 
female flowers are produced in separate inflorescences on the 
same tree. The staminate or male flowers grow in dense, 
yellow, club-shaped catkins ; the female, which are very numer- 
ous, are grouped together and form a large prickly head upon 
a spongy receptacle. The ripe fruit, which is composed of the 
matured ovaries of these female flowers, is round or oval in 
form, commonly 4 to 8 inches in diameter, green when immature 
but becoming brownish and at length 
yellow. The pulp is fibrous, pure white 
in the immature fruit and yellowish in 
the fully ripe one. The fruits are pro- 
duced on the small branches of the tree 
upon short, thick stalks. Clusters of 
two or three are common. 

There are two classes of breadfruits, 
one seedless and the other carrying 
seeds. The former is propagated vege- 
tatively, and is presumably the product 
of cultivation ; the latter is often found 
in a wild state, and is not used in the 
same manner as the seedless kind. The 
seeds resemble chestnuts in size and 
appearance. 

The breadfruit is believed to be a 
native of the Malayan Archipelago, where it has been culti- 
vated since antiquity. From its native region it was carried 
to the islands of the Pacific in prehistoric times. Henry E. 
Baum,^ who has written a lengthy history of this fruit, com- 
ments : "The open-boat journeys of the Polynesians in their 
peopling of the Pacific islands are marvelous from the point 
of view of seamanship alone. . . . Probably a hundred species 
of plants were introduced into Hawaii by the Polynesians, and 
1 Plant World, VI, 1903. 




Fig. 53. The bread- 
fruit, showing its internal 
structure. This is the 
seedless variety, generally 
cultivated in Polynesia ; 
the other form has seeds 
as large as chestnuts, and 
is not highly valued. (X 
about I) 



THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 409 

as a majority of their principal food-producing plants were 
propagated by cuttings alone, the difficulty in successfully 
carrying them across a wide expanse of ocean in open boats is 
obvious." 

Spanish voyagers who visited the Solomon Islands in the 
sixteenth century encountered the breadfruit, and it is believed 
that it must also have been seen by the early Dutch and Portu- 
guese sailors. In 1686 Captain William Dampier observed 
the plant at Guam and gave to the world an accurate descrip- 
tion of the fruit and its uses. The famous Captain Cook, who 
explored the Pacific from 1768 until he met his death in the 
Sandwich Islands in 1779, is said to have suggested to the 
British the desirability of introducing the tree into the West 
Indies. The outcome was that notorious voyage under William 
Bligh, in the Bounty, which forms certainly the most dramatic 
incident in the history of plant introduction. The expedi- 
tion sailed from England in 1787, and reached Tahiti, after a 
cruise of ten months, in 1788. A thousand breadfruit plants 
were obtained and placed on board ship in pots and tubs which 
had been provided for the purpose. Before the ship was out 
of the South Seas the crew, who had become enchanted with 
Tahitian life, mutinied and took charge of the ship, putting 
their commander and the eighteen men who remained loyal 
to him in a launch and setting them adrift. The mutinous 
crew sailed back to Tahiti, whence some of the members, 
accompanied by a number of Tahitians, migrated to Pitcairn's 
Island and established there an Utopian colony. After a trying 
voyage Bligh and his companions reached Tofoa, an island in 
the Tonga group, but they met with a hostile reception from 
the natives and were forced to continue their desperate pilgrim- 
age. Fearing, because of their defenseless condition, to land 
on the Oceanic islands, they steered for the distant East Indies, 
which they were successful in reaching. " It appeared scarcely 
credible to ourselves," remarks Captain Bligh in his account 



410 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

of the voyage, "that, in an open boat so poorly provided, 
we should have been able to reach the coast of Timor, in forty- 
one days after leaving Tofoa, having in that time run, by our 
log, a distance of 3618 miles; and that, notwithstanding our 
extreme distress, no one should have perished in the voyage." 

Undaunted by the failure of the first attempt, a second was 
fitted out, again under the command of Bligh, who was pro- 
moted to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy. This 
expedition, which sailed in 1792, secured 1200 breadfruit 
plants, as well as other valuable trees, and safely brought 
them to the West Indies. 

The seeded breadfruit, which is much less valuable than the 
seedless variety, was introduced into the West Indies by the 
French ten years previous to Bligh's successful voyage. 

At the present day the breadfruit is cosmopolitan in its 
distribution. Regarding its occurrence in Hawaii, Vaughan 
MacCaughey ^ says : 

"At the time of the coming of the first European explorers the 
breadfruit was plentiful around the native settlements and villages on 
all the islands : more plentiful than it has been at any subsequent 
period. It thrives in the humid regions of Kona and Hilo, on the 
island of Hawaii, and to-day there are many abandoned trees in these 
districts, marking the sites of once-populous Hawaiian villages. The 
extensive breadfruit groves of Lahaina, on Maui, were long famous for 
the excellence of their fruit. In humid valleys on Molokai, Oahu, and 
Kauai, the tree was also abundant, rearing its splendid dome of glossy 
foliage high above the surrounding vegetation. 

"It is distinctly a tree of the valleys and lowlands in Hawaii, and 
with the decadence of the Hawaiian population, and the utilization of 
fertile lowlands for sugar plantations, the majority of these fine old 
trees were sacrificed to make way for the white man's agriculture." 

In some of the Polynesian Islands, the tree is of such ancient 
cultivation, and plays such an important part in the life of the 
people, that the natives are unable to conceive of a land where 
the breadfruit is not found. 

1 Torreya, March, 1917. 



THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 411 

Westward from Polynesia and its native region (the Malay 
Archipelago), the breadfruit is grown in Ceylon and occasionally 
in India. In the American tropics it is nowhere an important 
product, but it is cultivated on a limited scale in the West 
Indies, the lowlands of Mexico and. Central America, and on 
the South American mainland as far south as the state of 
Sao Paulo in Brazil. 

There are probabl}^ no places on the mainland of the United 
States where it can be cultivated successfully. All parts of 
California unquestionably are too cold for it. Trees have been 
planted in extreme southern Florida, but so far as is known 
none has ever reached bearing stage, although there are fruit- 
ing specimens of the allied jackfruit in that state. 

The seedless variety is invariably called breadfruit in English ; 
the seeded variety sometimes breadnut. The Spanish name 
for the seedless form is drbol del pan, sometimes masa pan; 
the French arbre a pain ; the Portuguese arvore do pao or fruta 
pdo; the Italian alhero del pane; and the German hrotbaum. 
W, E. Safford ^ gives the following vernacular names : Seedless 
variety, — lemae, lemai, lemay, rima (Guam) ; rima, colo, kolo 
(Philippines); 'ulu (Samoa, Hawaii); ido (Fiji). Seeded 
variety, — dugdug, dogdog (Guam) ; tipolo, antipolo (Philip- 
pines) ; 'ulu-ma'a (Samoa) ; uto-sore (Fiji) ; hulia (Solomon 
Islands). Botanitally the breadfruit is Artocarpus communis, 
Forst. The name Artocarpus incisa, L., is a synonym. 

The methods of preparing breadfruit for eating are numerous. 
Safford writes: "It is eaten before it becomes ripe, while the 
pulp is still white and mealy, of a consistency intermediate 
between new bread and sweet potatoes. In Guam it was 
formerly cooked after the manner of most Pacific island 
aborigines, by means of heated stones in a hole in the earth, 
layers of stones, breadfruit, and green leaves alternating. It 
is still sometimes cooked in this way on ranches ; but the 
1 Useful Plants of Guam. 



412 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

usual way of cooking it is to boil it or to bake it in ovens ; or 
it is cut in slices and fried like potatoes. The last method is 
the one usually preferred by foreigners. The fruit boiled or 
baked is rather tasteless by itself, but with salt and butter or 
with gravy it is a palatable as well as a nutritious article of 
diet." 

Alice R. Thompson of Hawaii, who has published analyses 
of two varieties, says on the point of nutritive value : " The 
breadfruit is included in the table with bananas because it 
contains such high amounts of carbohydrates. In comparing 
it with the banana the hydrolyzable carbohydrates are seen 
to be much greater in amount. The breadfruit contains 
considerable amounts of starch even when ripe. The ash, 
fiber, and protein are high. The Samoan breadfruit was an- 
alyzed at a riper stage than the Hawaiian specimen, which 
may account for the larger proportion of starch to sugars in 
the former." Miss Thompson's ^ two analyses are as follows : 

Table VII. Composition of the Breadfruit 



Variety 


Total 
Solids 


Ash 


Acids 


Protein 


Total 
Sugars 


Fat 


Fiber 


Hydro- 
lyzable 

Carbo-' 

hydrates 

other than 

Sucrose 


Hawaiian 
Samoan . 


41.82 
26.89 


.95 
1.15 


.Oi 
.07 


1.57 
1.57 


9.49 
14.60 


.19 
.51 


1.20 
.97 


27.89 
9.21 



The above statements of uses and content apply solely to the 
needless variety. In the seeded form the flesh or pulp is of 
little value, but the seeds, which are eaten roasted or boiled, are 
highly relished. They have something of the flavor of chestnuts. 

The breadfruit tree is put to many uses in the Pacific islands. 

1 Report of the Hawaii Exp. Stat., 1914. 



THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 413 

Cloth and a kind of glue or calking material are obtained from 
it, while the leaves are excellent fodder for live-stock. 

In climatic requirements the tree is strictly tropical. Mac- 
Caughey sums up the necessary factors as : "A warm, humid 
climate throughout the year ; copious precipitation ; moist, 
fertile soil ; and thorough drainage. The absence of any one 
of these conditions is a serious detriment to the normal growth 
of the plant, or may wholly prevent its fruiting. It is scarcely 
tolerant of shade, and in Hawaii large trees are almost invari- 
ably found growing in the open." It may be observed that 
in those parts of Central America where the breadfruit is culti- 
vated it is found only in the lowlands, disappearing at eleva- 
tions of about 2,000 feet. It is evident, therefore, that it is only 
successful in regions of uniformly warm climate. 

Propagation of the seedless breadfruit is effected in the 
Pacific islands by means of sprouts from the roots. Mac- 
Caughey writes: "When growing in the soft moist soil which 
it prefers, the breadfruit roots shallowly and widely. Often 
a network of exserted roots is visible above the ground. This 
habit is of the greatest value in propagation. The wounding 
or bruising of the root at any given point stimulates the pro- 
duction of an offshoot, and young plants for transplanting 
are produced solely in this way. This mode of propagation is 
naturally very slow and laborious, as the young shoots grow 
slowly, and are very sensitive to injury." 

P. J. Wester has developed in the Philippines a method 
which is more expeditious and satisfactory. Root-cuttings 
are used. The method is described by him as follows : 

"A plant bed or frame should be filled with medium coarse river 
sand to a depth of 7 or 8 inches, — beach sand will do provided the 
salt has been thoroughly washed out. If sand is not procurable, 
sandy loam may be used. 

" Larger cuttings may be made, but for the sake of convenience in 
handling and in order not to impose too severe a strain upon the tree 
that supplies the material, it is inadvisable to dig up roots for cuttings 



414 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

that are more than 2| inches in diameter. Roots less than | inch in 
diameter should be discarded. Root cuttings 10 inches long have 
been very successful, but it is probable that a length of 8 inches would 
prove sufficient, and, if so, this would allow the propagation of a larger 
number of cuttings from a given amount of roots than if longer cuttings 
were made. 

" Saw off the roots into the proper lengths and smooth the cuts 
with a sharp knife. Then make a trench and place the cuttings diag- 
onally in the sand, leaving about 11 to 2 1 inches of the thickest end 
of each cutting projecting above the surface, pack the sand well, 
water, and subsequently treat like hardwood cuttings. "When the 
cuttings are weU rooted and have made a growth of eight to ten inches, 
transplant to the nursery. Great care should be exercised in not 
bruising, drying, or otherwise injuring the material from the digging 
of the roots to the insertion of the cuttings in the sand. 

" The work should be done during the rainy season," 

Seeds of the seeded breadfruit do not retain their vitality 
more than a few weeks, and should be planted promptly after 
they are removed from the fruit. 

The varieties of the seedless breadfruit are numerous but 
imperfectly, known. As many as twenty-five are said to occur 
in the Pacific islands, although MacCaughey states that only 
three are known in Hawaii. It is a curious circumstance that 
a tree as important as the breadfruit should have received 
so little scientific study; but exceedingly little is known re- 
garding the cultural methods best suited to it and the relative 
merits of the different varieties propagated vegetatively. Con- 
cerning such matters as its place in Polynesian folklore, its 
history, and the uses of the fruit, however, there is an abun- 
dance of information in the accounts of early voyages as well 
as in the writings of modern authors. 

The Jackfruit (Plate XXIII) 

{Artocarpus integrifolia, Forst.) 

" There is again another wonderful tree," wrote the pioneer 
traveler John de Marignolli in 1350, "called Chake-Baruke, 



THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 415 

as big as an oak. Its fruit is produced from the trunk, and 
not from the branches, and is something marvelous to see, 
being as big as a great lamb, or a child of three years old. 
It has a hard rind like that of our pine-cones, so that you 
have to cut it open with a hatchet ; inside it has a pulp of sur- 
passing flavor, with the sweetness of honey, and of the best 
Italian melon ; and this also contains some 500 chestnuts of 
like flavor, which are capital eating when roasted." 

Like other early travelers, Marignolli was inclined to exagger- 
ate the merits of the new fruits with which he made acquaint- 
ance. The jackfruit is not generally considered first-class by 
Europeans. When preserved or dried it is better, but in tropical 
America the fruit is commonly not eaten except by the poorer 
classes. In the Orient, where it has been cultivated since 
ancient times, it seems to be held in greater esteem; H. F. 
Macmillan says that it " forms a very important article of food 
with the natives of the Eastern tropics." Both Theophrastus 
and Pliny, early writers who mentioned the jackfruit, give 
the same impression; Plin\^ describes it as the fruit "whereof 
the Indian Sages and Philosophers do ordinarily live." 

The jackfruit is less exacting in its cultural requirements 
than its congener the breadfruit, and since it resists cool weather 
much better it is adapted to cultivation over a wider area. 

The tree is large, stately, and handsome ; under favorable 
conditions it may reach a height of 60 to 70 feet. The leaves 
are oblong, oval, or elliptic in form, 4 to 6 inches in length, 
leathery, glossy, and deep green in color. The flowers resemble 
in general those of the breadfruit, except that the pistillate or 
female blossoms are commonly produced directly on the bark 
of the trunk and larger limbs. The fruit is one of the largest 
in the world; some \^Titers affirm that specimens have been 
known to weigh 80 pounds, although half this is a safer estimate. 
They vary from oval to oblong, and are sometimes 2 feet in 
length. The surface is studded with short hard points, and is 



416 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

pale green in the immature fruit, becoming greenish yellow 
and then brownish as ripening progresses. The fruit is divided 
inside into many small cavities each containing a seed sur- 
rounded by soft brownish pulp of pungent odor and aromatic 
flavor somewhat suggesting the banana. Thomas Firminger 
speaks rather discouragingly of this fruit. He says: "By 
those who can manage to eat it, it is considered most delicious, 
possessing the rich spicy flavor and scent of the melon, but to 
such a powerful degree as to be quite unbearable to persons of 
weak stomach, or to those unaccustomed to it." 

The tree grows wild in the mountains of India and is 
ordinarily considered indigenous to that country. Alphonse 
DeCandolle believed that its cultivation probably did not 
antedate the Christian era. At the present day it is common 
in many parts of India, particularly in lower Bengal, and 
Macmillan observes that it has become semi-naturalized in 
Ceylon. In the Malayan region it is a common fruit-tree. 
The worthy Father Tavares states that it was introduced into 
Brazil by the Portuguese about the middle of the seventeenth 
century. It is now abundant in many parts of that country, 
particularly about Bahia. William Harris ^ gives the following 
account of its introduction into Jamaica : 

" It was amongst the plants found on board the French ship 
bound from the Isle of Bourbon to Santo Domingo, which 
was captured by Captain INIarshall of H. Ml S. Flora, one of 
Lord Rodney's squadron, in June, 1782, and was sent to Mr. 
Hinton East's garden in Gordon Town. It was again intro- 
duced in the early part of 1793 when Captain BligH of H. M. S. 
Providence brought it with other plants from the island of 
Timor in the Malay Archipelago. The tree is common all 
over the island, and is naturalized in the Cockpit country." 

In Hawaii it is not abundant. It has never been a success 
in California, the climate having proved too cold for it. In 
1 BuU. Botanical Dept., 3, 1910. 



TEE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 417 

southern Florida, however, there are several fruiting trees, but 
on the shallow soils of that region they do not grow to large 
size, and the fruits which have been produced were not of good 
quality. The species is probably too strictly tropical in its 
requirements to be entirely successful in any part of this country. 

Concerning the origin of the name jackfruit, which is known 
to be an English adaptation of the Portuguese jaca, Yule and 
Burnell say: "Rheede rightly gives tsjaka (chakka) as the 
Malayalam name, and from this no doubt the Portuguese took 
jaca and handed it on to us." Kanthal, kathal, yanasa, and 
kantaka are some of the vernacular names used in India. The 
French call it jacque. The orthography of the common English 
name might better be jakfruit, and indeed this spelling is 
employed by some writers, but the commoner form jackfruit 
will probably be hard to displace. Artocarpus Integra, L., is a 
botanical synonym. 

The fruit is eaten fresh, or it may be preserved in sirup, or 
dried like the fig. Thomas Firminger writes : " If the edible 
pulp of the fruit be taken out and boiled in some fresh milk, 
and then be strained off, the milk will, on becoming cold, form 
a thick jelly-like substance of the consistency of blanc-mange, 
of a fine orange color, and of melon-like flavor. Treated in 
this way the fruit affords a very agreeable dish for the table." 
Father Tavares has this warning : " It must be eaten when 
full ripe; and not at meal times ; a cup of cool water should be 
taken immediately afterwards, never wine or other fermented 
drink, since these, when combined with the jaca, are poisonous." 
He adds that the seeds, boiled or roasted, are very pleasant 
and that they are used, pulverized, in making biscuits. The 
ripe fruits are often fed to cattle in Brazil. Alice R. Thompson 
of Hawaii has found the edible portion or pulp to contain : 
Total solids 23.20 per cent, ash 0.93, acids 0.27, protein 1.44, 
total sugars 15.15, fat 0.45, and fiber 1.3. The seed was found 
to contain: Total solids 50.82 per cent, ash 3.49, acids 0.16, 
2e 



418 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

protein 5.44, total sugars 1.87, fat 0.24, fiber 1.80, and hydroly- 
zable carbohydrates other than sucrose 23.53. Thus it will be 
seen that the pulp is rather high in protein and fiber and low 
in acids. The seeds have a high starch-content and very little 
sugar, while the protein-content is about 5 per cent. 

The climatic requirements of the jackfruit consist in abun- 
dant precipitation and freedom from severe frosts. Probably 
it can be grown by the aid of irrigation in regions where there is 
little rainfall. Mature trees have passed through temperatures 
of about 27° above zero in southern Florida, but they were 
frozen to the large limbs. Though temperatures below freezing 
kill young trees and injure old ones, the jackfruit is not, like 
its congener the breadfruit, injured by cool weather several 
degrees above freezing. It prefers a rich, deep, and moist soil, 
but can be grown successfully on shallow and light soils such 
as some of those of southern Florida. In Brazil it grows well 
on clay and on sandy loam. Very little attention is given to 
cultural methods in the regions where the jackfruit is commonly 
grown. Like the breadfruit, it succeeds without much care from 
man, the sole necessity being abundant moisture. 

Propagation is by seeds, which should be planted soon after 
their removal from the fruit. The method of propagation by 
means of root-cuttings or suckers, which is practiced with the 
seedless breadfruit, is said not to be successful with this species. 

According to Paul Hubert, young trees come into bearing 
when five years of age. It is doubtful, however, whether they 
can be depended on to fruit so early. Thomas Firminger 
writes : "The jackfruit is not borne, like most other fruits are, 
from the ends of branches, but upon stout footstalks pro- 
jecting from the main trunk and thickest branches of the tree. 
In no other way, indeed, could its ponderous weight be sus- 
tained. The situation of the fruit, moreover, is said to vary 
with the age of the tree; being first borne on the branches, 
then on the trunk, and in old trees on the roots. Those borne 



THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES 419 

on the roots, which discover themselves by the cracking of the 
earth above them, are held in the highest estimation." When 
grown in a cool climate the fruits are of inferior quality. The 
ripening season extends over several months. 

Paul Hubert states that Batocera rubra L. attacks the tree 
in some regions. This insect, which is a cerambycid beetle, 
causes much damage to fig trees in India by boring in their 
trunks, and probably works on the jackfruit in the same manner. 
The larva of a moth, Perina nuda F., is said by H. Maxwell- 
Lefroy to feed on the jackfruit throughout India. 

"Of this tree," says the excellent Rheede, "they reckon 
more than thirty varieties, distinguished by the quality of their 
fruits, but all may be reduced to two kinds ; the fruit of one 
kind is distinguished by plump and succulent pulp of excellent 
flavor, being the Varaka ; that of the other, filled with softer 
and more flabby pulp of inferior flavor, being the Tsjakapa." 
This classification is borne out by more modern writers. 
Thomas Firminger speaks of the hard and soft kinds, and the 
same two forms are known in Brazil. H. F. Macmillan gives 
the following resume of the subject : 

"Jak-fruit occurs in several varieties, the two most distinct 
in Ceylon being: (1) 'Waraka,' distinguished by a firm fruit, 
which the natives recognize by the sound when fiicked with 
the fingers ; (2) 'Vela,' characterized by its softer rind, through 
which the finger may be thrust when approaching ripeness, 
the pulp being less sweet than that of the former variety. Of 
these there are several sub varieties, as 'Kuru-waraka' (with 
small and almost round fruit), and * Peni-waraka ' ('honey 
jak'), which has a sweetish pulp. A variety called ' Johore jak,' 
with hairy leaves and a small oblong fruit with a most over- 
powering odor, is greatly esteemed by those who eat the fruit." 

Since these "varieties" are propagated by seed, they should 
properly be termed races. Of true horticultural varieties- 
propagated vegetatively, there are none. 



420 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The Marang 
{Artocarpus odoratissima, Blanco) 

The marang has been brought recently to the attention of 
horticulturists by P. J. Wester, who considers it a fruit of un- 
usual promise. It resembles the jackfruit and the seeded 
breadfruit in appearance, but is superior in quality to 
either of these. The tree, which grows wild in the southern 
Philippine Islands and the Sulu Archipelago, is medium-sized, 
with large, dark green entire or three-lobed leaves 18 to 24 
inches long. Wester describes the fruit as roundish oblong in 
form, about 6 inches in length, with the surface thickly studded 
with soft greenish yellow spines i inch long. The rind is thick 
and fleshy, the flesh white, sweet, and juicy, aromatic and of 
pleasant flavor; it is separated into segments (about the size 
of a grape) which cling to the core, and each segment contains 
a whitish seed nearly ^ inch long. "When the fruit is ripe, by 
passing a knife around and through the rind, with a little care 
the halves may be separated from the flesh, leaving this like 
a bunch of white grapes . " In the Philippines it ripens in August . 

The tree is strictly tropical in its requirements and probably 
will not succeed in regions where the temperature falls below 
32° or 35° above zero. It likes a moist atmosphere and abun- 
dant rainfall. The marang has been introduced into the 
United States, but does not promise well either in Florida or in 
California. 



CHAPTER XVI 

MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 

Having discussed in the different chapters the fruits that 
are more or less closely related botanically and culturallj^, we 
may now put the remaining kinds together in a single final 
fascicle. Most of these fruits are of very minor importance 
horticulturally. Here the reader will find accounts of the 
durian, santol, langsat, carambola, bilimbi, tamarind, carissa, 
ramontchi, umkokolo, ketembilla, white sapote, tuna, pitaya, 
tree tomato, genipa. 

The Durian (Plate XXIV) 
{Durio zihethinus, Murr.) 

Except for the fact that a few trees have been planted in the 
West Indies and elsewhere, and that P. J. Wester has shown 
that it can readily be budded (thus paving the way for its 
improvement), the durian occupies the same position to-day 
which it held when first observed by Europeans in the fifteenth 
century, — ■ that of a semi-cultivated fruit of great importance 
to the inhabitants of the Malayan region. 

Its tardy dissemination has probably been due to the perish- 
able nature of its seeds, making it difficult to carry the species 
from one part of the tropics to another. It must be admitted, 
also, that the fruit is not one which has invariably met with a 
favorable reception from Europeans. Because of its strong 
disagreeable odor many do not like it, but others become 
extremely fond of it. 

421 



422 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

In its native home the durian becomes a large tree. It has 
obovate-oblong leaves 6 to 7 inches long, leathery in texture, 
shining on the upper surface and scaly on the lower. The 
flowers, which are produced in cymes, have a bell-shaped 
five-lobed calyx and five oblong petals. The fruit is oval in 
form, 6 to 8 inches long, covered externally with short woody 
protuberances. It is five-valved, and within each compart- 
ment are several seeds surrounded by clear pale brown custard- 
like pulp of strong gaseous odor and rich bland taste. The 
following description by a distinguished durian-eater, Alfred 
Russel Wallace,^ gives an excellent idea of this remarkable fruit : 

"The banks of the Sarawak River are everywhere covered with 
fruit trees, which supply the Dyaks with a great deal of their food. 
The Mangosteen, Lansat, Rambutan, Jack, Jambou, and Blimbing, 
are all abundant ; but most abundant and most esteemed is the 
Durian, a fruit about which very little is known in England, but which 
both by natives and Europeans in the Malay Archipelago is reckoned 
superior to aU others. The old traveller Linsehott, writing in 1599, 
says : — ' It is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavor aU 
the other fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it.' 
And Doctor Paludanus adds : — ' This fruit is of a hot and humid 
nature. To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten 
onions, but immediately they have tasted it they prefer it to all other 
food. The natives give it honorable titles, exalt i,t, and make verses 
on it.' When brought into a house the smell is often so offensive that 
some persons can never bear to taste it. This was my own case when 
I first tried it in Malacca, but in Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the 
ground, and, eating it out of doors, I at once became a confirmed 
Durian eater. 

"The Durian grows on a large and lofty forest tree, somewhat 
resembling an elm in its general character, but with a more smooth 
and scaly bark. The fruit is round or slightly oval, about the size of a 
large coconut, of a green color, and covered aU over with short stout 
spines, the bases of which touch each other, and are consequently 
somewhat hexagonal, while the points are very strong and sharp. 
It is so completely armed, that if the stalk is broken off it is a difficult 
matter to lift one from the ground. The outer rind is so thick and 
tough, that from whatever height it may fall it is never broken. From 
the base to the apex five very faint lines may be traced, over which 

1 The Malay Archipelago. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 423 

the spines arch a little ; these are the sutures of the carpels, and 
show where the fruit may be divided with a heavy knife and a strong 
hand. The five cells are satiny white within, and are each filled 
with an oval mass of cream-colored pulp, imbedded in which are two 
or three seeds about the size of chestnuts. This pulp is the eatable 
part, and its consistence and flavor are indescribable. A rich butter- 
like custard highly flavored with almonds gives the best general idea 
of it, but intermingled with it come wafts of flavor that call to mind 
cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown sherry, and other incongruities. 
Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing 
else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acid, 
nor sweet, nor juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these quahties, 
for it is perfect as it is. In fact to eat Durians is a new sensation, 
worth a voyage to the East to experience. 

"When the fruit is ripe it faUs of itself, and the only way to eat 
Durians in perfection is to get them as they fall ; and the smell is then 
less overpowering. When unripe, it makes a very good vegetable if 
cooked, and it is also eaten by the Dyaks raw. In a good season 
large quantities are preserved salted, in jars and bamboos, and kept 
the year round, when it acquires a most disgusting odor to Europeans 
but the Dyaks appreciate it highly as a relish with their rice. There 
are in the forest two varieties of wild Durians with much smaller 
fruits, one of them orange-colored inside ; and these are probably 
the origin of the large and fine Durians, which are never found wild. 
It would not, perhaps, be correct to say that the Durian is the best 
of aU fruits, because it cannot supply the place of the subacid, juicy 
kinds, such as the orange, grape, mango, and mangosteen, whose 
refreshing and cooling qualities are so wholesome and grateful ; but 
as producing a food of the most exquisite flavor it is unsurpassed. If 
I had to fix on two only, as representing the perfection of the two 
classes, I should certainly choose the Durian and the Orange as the 
king and queen of fruits. 

"The Durian is, however, sometimes dangerous. When the fruit 
begins to ripen it falls daily and almost hourly, and accidents not 
infrequently happen to persons walking or working under the trees. 
When a Durian strikes a man in its fall, it produces a dreadful wound, 
the strong spines tearing open the flesh, while the blow itself is very 
heavy; but from this very circumstance death rarely ensues, the 
copious effusion of blood preventing the inflammation which might 
otherwise take place. A Dyak chief informed me that he had been 
struck down by a Durian falling on his head, which he thought would 
certainly have caused his death, yet he recovered in a very short time.'' 

The area in which the durian is indigenous has not been 
determined with certainty. The species is generally believed 



424 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

to be native to Borneo and other islands of the Malay Archi- 
pelago, but Sir Joseph Hooker considered that its distribution 
as an indigenous plant probably did not extend to the Malay 
peninsula. He thought that Durio malaccensis, Planch., 
which grows in Malacca and Burma, might be the wild form of 
the durian. 

The region in which the tree is commonly found extends from 
the northern Federated IMalay States through the Dutch East 
Indies and up into the Philippines as far as INIindanao. A single 
tree is known to have fruited in Hawaii, and another in Dominica, 
British "West Indies. The species is seen occasionally in Ceylon 
and other tropical countries, but outside of the Malayan region 
its cultivation is limited mainly to botanic gardens. 

The name durian (or dorian) is the only one by which this 
fruit is knowTi to Europeans. Yule and Burnell say : "INIalay 
duren, Molucca form durivan, from duri, a thorn or prickle 
(and an, the common substantival ending; IMr. Skeat gives 
the standard INIalay as duriyan or durian)." Various spellings 
of the word are found in the early ^Titers. 

An analysis made in the Philippines by W. E. Pratt shows the 
fruit to contain : Total solids 44.5 per cent, ash 1.24, acids 0.1, 
protein 2.3, invert sugar 4.8, sucrose 7.9, and starch 11.0. In 
the Philippine Journal of Science, November, 1912, O. W. 
Barrett writes: "The chemical body which is responsible for 
the very pronounced odor is probably one of the sulfur com- 
pounds with some base perhaps related to that in but\Tic acid ; 
it is not an oil nor a sugar, not a true starch nor an inulin, but 
according to Dr. W. E. Pratt it is a substance new to the organic 
chemist. The pulp contains a compound which, it is believed, 
is related to er}i;hrodextrin, but seems to exist, if such, in a new 
form in this fruit." 

In its climatic requirements the durian is tropical, probably 
strictly so. The few experiments made indicate that it will not 
succeed anywhere on the mainland of the United States. It 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 425 

is limited to regions free from frost, and delights in a deep rich 
soil and abundant moisture. There are many places in the 
West Indies and elsewhere in tropical America where it should 
be quite at home. In the Malayan islands, where it is com- 
monly grown, the tree receives little cultural attention, hence 
nothing is known regarding pruning, irrigation, or other matters 
which usually give the northern horticulturists much concern. 
Propagation is ordinarily by seeds, which do not keep long 
after they are removed from the fruit. It has been learned 
that they can be shipped successfully from the eastern to the 
western tropics if they are packed in a mixture of charcoal 
and coconut fiber, slightly moistened. 

The method of budding practiced by Wester, to which refer- 
ence has been made, differs very little from shield-budding as 
applied to the avocado and mango. By means of this method 
of propagation it will be possible to perpetuate superior seed- 
lings, and the number of years required for the tree to come 
into bearing should be lessened. Wester recommends that 
the budwood be well beyond the tender stage, but not so old 
that it is brittle. The petioles should be removed some time 
before the budwood is to be used, and the petiole-scars given 
time to heal over; if this is not done, decay may attack the 
buds. The inverted T-incision is preferred. 

No horticultural varieties have yet been established, but 
several seedling races or forms are known to exist. Barrett 
says : " In passing we should not forget that there are durians 
and durians; some are said to be without a strong odor, while 
to our certain knowledge some of the Borneo varieties are not 
at all objectionable. Borneo has at least six and probably 
ten varieties; some of these have only one or two seeds and 
are comparatively small fruits, while others are fully as large 
as our largest Jolo or Lake Lanao (Mindanao) forms ; the pulp 
of some is nearly white, while that of others is pale salmon or 
even orange in color." 



426 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The Santol 
(Sandoricum Koetjape, Merr.) 

Few writers recommend the santol as a fruit worthy of exten- 
sive cultivation. It is known chiefly in the Malayan region, 
where it is indigenous. The tree is medium sized, attaining 
to 50 feet in height. The leaves are trifoliate with elliptic to 
oblong-ovate, acuminate leaflets 4 to 6 inches in length. The 
greenish flowers are borne in axillary panicles and are followed 
by globose or oblate fruits about 2 inches in diameter, brownish 
yellow and velvety on the surface, with a thick tough rind 
inclosing five segments of whitish translucent pulp which ad- 
heres to the large seeds. 

"The santol," writes P. J. Wester, "is one of the most widely 
distributed fruits in the Philippines. The tree is hardy, of 
vigorous and rapid growth, and succeeds well even where the 
dry season is prolonged. The fruit is produced in great abun- 
dance, in fact in such profusion that large quantities annually 
rot on the ground during the ripening season, which extends 
principally from July to October. It should be stated that the 
waste of the fruit is due principally to its poor quality ; in fact, 
from the European point of view most of the santols are barely 
edible. However, now and then trees are found whose fruit 
is of most excellent flavor, and when a fruit shall have been 
found that also has the feature of being seedless or semi-seedless, 
like the mangosteen, it is believed the now practically unknown 
santol will become one of the most popular of the tropical fruits." 

Sandoricum indicum, Cav., is a botanical synonym. 

The Langsat (Fig. 54) 

{Lansium domesticum, Jack) 

While it cannot be said to rival the mangosteen, the langsat 
is considered one of the best fruits of the Malayan region. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 427 

Like the mangosteen it differs from many other tropical fruits in 
being juicy and of aromatic subacid flavor, instead of richly 
sweet. It is doubtless to this characteristic that it owes its 
popularity among European travelers and residents in the 
East. 

Like several other excellent Malayan fruits, the langsat 
has not yet become generally cultivated outside of the Asiatic 
tropics. Its introduction into the western hemisphere has been 
accomplished, but it is only found as yet in a few botanic gardens 
and private collections of rare plants. 

The tree is erect, symmetrical in form, usually somewhat 

slender, and attains a height of 35 to 40 feet. Its pinnate 

leaves are composed of five to seven 

elliptic-oblong to obovate acuminate 

leaflets 4 to 8 inches in length. The 

small subsessile flowers are borne on 

racemes or spikes arising from the larger ^ ^ _, 

, 1 L. p . . . n 1 Fig- 54. The duku, a 

branches, i he truit varies m form and variety of the langsat {Lan- 

character, but is generally oval or «^"^ domesticum) which 

. .^ grows in the Malayan 

round, 1 to 2 inches m diameter, velvety Archipelago, (x |) 
and straw-colored, with a thick leathery 

skin inclosing five segments of white, translucent, juicy, aromatic 
flesh, and one to three large seeds. The tree is cultivated in 
many islands of the INIalay Archipelago and in the Philippines. 
Regarding its importance in the latter region, P. J. Wester 
writes : " The lanzone is extensively grown for the Manila mar- 
ket in Laguna Province, east of Santa Cruz, and is also cultivated 
to a considerable extent in Misamis, Zamboanga, the Sulu 
Archipelago, and around Argao in Cebu." As indicated by 
Wester' s note the common name in the Philippines is lanzone 
(often spelled lanzon). In the Malay Archipelago the forms 
lansa and lanseli are sometimes seen, and also the name ay er-ayer. 
While it is most commonly eaten out of hand, the culinary 
uses of the fruit are several. The edible portion is said 




428 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

to contain 1.13 per cent of protein, 1 of acid, and 4.9 of 
sugar. 

In its climatic requirements the plant is distinctly tropical. 
Wester says : " The lanzone is of vigorous growth and succeeds 
best under somewhat the same climatic conditions as the 
mangosteen. It will not grow where there is a pronounced 
or prolonged dry season, and in the Philippines it is usually 
grown in half-shade interplanted with the coconut." Experi- 
ments indicate that it is not suitable for cultivation in Florida 
or California, the climate of both states probably being too 
cold for it. In Cuba and the Isle of Pines it has shown more 
promise. 

Little is known regarding cultural methods, since the lang- 
sat usually occurs in the Malayan region as a dooryard tree, 
or along roadsides, where it receives no cultural attention. 
Propagation is commonly by seeds, which should be planted 
as soon as possible after they are removed from the fruit ; but 
Wester has shown that cleft- and side-grafting are successful, 
and one or the other of these methods should be used to propa- 
gate choice varieties, and to insure early fruiting. Wester 
says : " The cion should be well matured but not of old growth, 
2| to 31 inches long, i to f inch in diameter, and inserted in 
the stock 21 to 4 inches above ground ; when at that height it 
is I to f inch in diameter ; cover all wounds with grafting wax. 
Shield-budding has been done but the percentage of successful 
buds is small." 

The langsat occurs in two distinct forms, one termed langsat 
and the other duku or doekoe. The typical langsat is borne in 
clusters of five or six up to twenty or thirty, and the individ- 
ual fruits are round or oval in form, about an inch long, with a 
comparatively thin skin. The duku is produced in small 
clusters of two to five fruits, and is round, from 1 to 2 inches 
in diameter, with a thicker, darker-colored skin more leathery 
than that of the langsat. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 



429 



The Carambola (Fig. 55) 
(Averrhoa Carambola, h.) 

"There is another fruit called Carambola," wrote the Dutch 
traveler Linschoten in 1598, "which hath 8 corners, as bigge 
as a smal aple, sower in eating, like unripe plums, and most 

used to make Con- 

serues." The Chinese 
and the Hindus eat the 
carambola when green 
as a vegetable, when 
ripe as a dessert. It is 
widely distributed in 
the tropics, but in 
America it is not so 
highly esteemed as in 
the Orient. 

The tree is small, 
handsome, and grows 
up to 30 feet in height. 
It has compound leaves 
composed of two to five 
pairs of ovate or ovate- 
lanceolate leaflets, 
rounded at the base and 
acute to acuminate at 
the apex, 1| to 3 inches 
long, glabrous, light 
green above and glau- 
cous below. The small 
white or purplish flowers are borne in short racemes from the 
bark of the young and old branches. The petals are five ; the 
stamens ten, but five are without anthers. The fruit is oval or 
elliptic in outline, translucent yellow or pale golden brown in 




Fig. 55. A flowering and fruiting branch of 
carambola {Averrhoa Carambola), an Asiatic 
fruit sometimes cultivated in tropical America. 
(Xi) 



430 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

color, 3 to 5 inches long, and three-, four-, or five-ribbed longi- 
tudinally, so that a cross-section is star-shaped. "It contains 
a clear watery pulp," writes W. E. SafPord, "astringent when 
green and tasting like sorrel or green gooseberries, but pleasantly 
acid when ripe, or even sweet, with an agreeable fruity flavor, 
and a strong perfume like that of the quince." 

While the native home of this species is not definitely known, 
it is believed to be indigenous to the Malayan region, whence 
it was early brought to America. It is now cultivated in 
southern China, and from there westward to India. Saiford 
states that it grows in Guam, but is not common. It also 
grows in the Philippines and in Hawaii. In America it is 
most abundant in Brazil, where it was doubtless introduced 
by the Portuguese. It does not grow in California, but succeeds 
in southern Florida. E. N. Reasoner has a handsome specimen 
in his tropical fruit shed at Oneco, near Bradentown, a place 
which would be too cold for the species were it not given some 
protection during the winter. It is rare on the lower east 
coast of Florida. 

The name carambola is said to have come from Malabar, and 
was early adopted by the Portuguese. In upper India the fruit 
is called kamranga or kamrakh. The presence of a Sanskrit 
name, karmara, and the accounts of early writers, indicate 
that the plant was known in India before the time of European 
colonization. The Chinese are said to call the fruit yongfo 
or foreign peach. In the Philippines it is termed balimbing 
as well as carambola; in Guam bilimbines. 

The fruits, when fully ripe, are eaten out of hand, or they 
may be stewed. When slightly unripe they are used for jelly 
and pickles. Like the bilimbi, the carambola contains potas- 
sium oxalate, and for this reason the unripe fruit is used in 
dyeing and to remove iron-rust. In southern China caram- 
bolas are preserved in tin and exported to other countries. An 
analysis made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thompson shows the 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 431 

ripe fruit of the sweet variety to contain : Total solids 8.22 per 
cent, ash 0.42, acids 0.78, protein 0.71, total sugars 3.40, fat 
0.75, and fiber 1.23. 

In its climatic requirements the tree may be considered 
tropical. It withstands very little frost and when young is 
injured by temperatures above the freezing-point. It prefers 
a warm moist climate and a deep rich soil, but it can be grown 
successfully on sandy soils and heavy clays, and in northern 
India it thrives where the climate is dry. Cold is the limit- 
ing factor in California and Florida ; in the latter state it may 
succeed from Palm Beach southwards, but plants have often 
failed to grow at Miami. When young the carambola is deli- 
cate and requires careful attention. 

Safford states that the tree is long-lived and a constant 
bearer, producing, in Guam, several crops a year. Father 
Tavares writes of its behavior in Brazil : " During the entire 
year it loads itself with successive crops of flowers and fruits, 
except for a short period when it is devoid of foliage." 

Propagation is readily effected by means of seeds, and P. J. 
Wester has shown that budding is successful. He states that 
budwood should be beyond the tender stage, but not so old 
that it is brittle. It should not be used if the petioles have 
fallen. The buds should be cut an inch in length, and inserted 
in inverted T-incisions, the operation of budding being essen- 
tially the same as with the avocado. 

No horticultural varieties of the carambola are yet estab- 
lished. Sweet and sour seedling forms are sometimes recognized. 

The Bilimbi 

{Averrhoa Bilimbi, L.) 

Like its congener the carambola, this tree is probably a 
native of the Malayan region, but it is known only as a culti- 
vated species. The fruit is too highly acid to be eaten out of 



432 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

hand ; it may be pickled in the same manner as the cucumber, 
which it resembles in appearance; it may be preserved in 
sirup ; or it may be used as a relish with meat or fish. 

The tree, which grows to about 30 feet in height, may be 
distinguished readily from the carambola by its larger leaves, 
which have five to seventeen pairs of leaflets in place of two 
to five. The crimson flowers have ten stamens, all perfect. 
The fruit, known in different regions as bilamhu, balimbing, 
blimhing, blimbee, and camias, is cylindrical or obscurely five- 
angled, 2 to 4 inches long, greenish yellow and translucent 
when ripe, with soft juicy flesh containing a few small flattened 
seeds. 

The requirements of the tree are much the same as those of 
the carambola. It is usually propagated by seeds. P. J. 
Wester reported that attempts to bud it were not successful. 
No horticultural varieties are grown. 

The Tamarind (Fig. 56) 
{Tamarindus indica, L.) 

In addition to the usefulness of its fruit, the tamarind has 
the advantage of being one of the best ornamental trees of the 
tropics. It is particularly valued in semi-arid regions, where 
it grows luxuriantly if supplied with water at the root. From 
India to Brazil, its huge dome-shaped head of graceful foliage 
enlightens many a dreary scene. 

The fruit became known in Europe in the Middle Ages. 
Marco Polo mentioned it in 1298, but it was not until Garcia 
d'Orta correctly described it in 1563 that its true source was 
known; it was thought at first to be produced by an Indian 
palm. The New England sea-captains who traded with the 
West Indies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries fre- 
quently brought the preserved fruit to Boston from Jamaica 
and other islands, but in recent years it has become scarcely 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 



433 



known in the United States. In Arabia and India, however, 
it is a product of considerable importance. 

When grown on deep rich soils the tree may attain to 80 feet 
in height, with a trunk 25 feet in circumference. The small 
pale green leaves are 
abruptly pinnate, with 
ten to twenty pairs of 
opposite, oblong, ob- 
tuse leaflets, soft and 
about I inch long. The 
pale yellow flowers, 
which are borne in 
small lax racemes, are 
about 1 inch broad. 
The petals are five, but 
the lower two are re- 
duced to bristles. The 
fruit is a pod, cinnamon- 
brown in color, 3 to 8 
inches long, flattened, 
and ^ to 1 inch in 
breadth. Within its 
brittle covering are 
several obovate com- 
pressed seeds sur- 
rounded by brown pulp 
of acid taste. 

The tamarind is be- 
lieved to be indigenous 

to tropical Africa and (according to some authors) southern 
Asia. It has long been cultivated in India and it was early 
introduced into tropical America. It succeeds in southern 
Florida and has been grown in that state as far north as 
Manatee, where a large tree was killed by the freeze of 1884. 
2p 




Fig. 56. The tamarind (Tamarindus in- 
dica), a leguminous fruit-tree whose brown 
pods contain an acid pulp used in cooking, and 
to prepare refreshing drinks. (X ^) 



434 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

It is not sufficiently hardy to be grown in any part of Cali- 
fornia. 

Yule and Burnell say: "The origin of the name is curious. 
It is Arabic, tamar-u'l-Hind, 'date of India,' or perhaps rather 
in, Persian form, tamar-i-Hindi. It is possible that the origi- 
nal name may have been thamar, 'fruit' of India, rather than 
tamar, 'date.'" In French it is tamarin, in Spanish and Portu- 
guese tamarindo. 

The fruit is widely utilized in the Orient as an ingredient of 
chutnies and curries and for pickling fish. In medicine, it is 
valued by the Hindus as a refrigerant, digestive, carminative, 
laxative, and antiscorbutic. Owing to its possession of the 
last-named quality, it is sometimes used by seamen in place of 
lime-juice. With the addition of sugar and water it yields a 
cooling drink or refresco, especially well known in Latin America. 
In some countries tamarinds are an important article of export. 
In Jamaica the fruit is prepared for shipment by stripping it 
of its outer shell, and then packing it in casks, with alternate 
layers of coarse sugar. When the cask is nearly full, boiling 
sirup is poured over all, after which the cask is headed up. 
In the Orient the pulp containing the seed is pressed into large 
cakes, which are packed for shipment in sacks made from palm 
leaves. This product is a familiar sight in the bazaars, where it is 
retailed in large quantities ; it is greatly esteemed as an article 
of diet by the East Indians and the Arabs. Large quantities 
are shipped from India to Arabia. 

The pulp contains sugar together with acetic, tartaric, and 
citric acids, the acids being combined, for the most part, with 
potash. In East Indian tamarinds citric acid is said to be 
present in about 4 per cent and tartaric about 9 per cent. The 
following analysis has been made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thomp- 
son : Total solids 69.51 per cent, ash 1.82, acids 11.32, protein 
3.43, total sugars 21.32, fat 0.85, and fiber 5.61. Commenting 
on this analysis, Miss Thompson says : " The tamarind is of 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 435 

interest because of its high acid and sugar content. It is sup- 
posed to contain more acid and sugar than any other fruit. 
The analysis reported by Pratt and Del Rosario shows the 
green tamarind to contain little sugar, but the sugar increases 
very greatly on ripening." 

The tree delights in a deep alluvial soil and abundant rain- 
fall. Lacking the latter, it will make good growth if liberally 
irrigated. The largest specimens are found in tropical regions 
where the soil is rich and deep. On the shallow soils of south- 
eastern Florida the species does not attain to great size. When 
small it is very susceptible to frost, but when mature it will 
probably withstand temperatures of 28° or 30° above zero 
without serious injury. It is usually given little cultural atten- 
tion, and is not grown as an orchard tree. 

Propagation is commonly by means of seeds. These can be 
transported without difficulty, since they retain their viability 
for many months if kept dry. They are best sprouted by 
planting them | inch deep in light sandy loam. The young 
plants are delicate and must be handled carefully to pre- 
vent damping-off. P. J. Wester has found that the species 
can be shield-budded in much the same manner as the avocado 
and mango. He says: "Use petioled, well-matured, brownish 
or grayish budwood ; cut the buds one inch long ; age of stock 
at point of insertion of bud unimportant." 

Seedling trees are slow to come into bearing. A mature tree 
is said to produce, in India, about 350 pounds of fruit a year. 

Little is known of the insect pests which attack the tamarind. 
H. Maxw^ell-Lefroy mentions two, Caryoborus gonagra F., and 
Charaxes fahius Fabr., the latter a large black, yellow-spotted 
butterfly whose larva feeds on the leaves. Both these insects 
occur in India. 

Thomas Firminger speaks of three varieties of tamarind which 
are grown in India, but does not know whether they can be 
depended on to come true from seed. M. T. Masters, in the 



436 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

"Treasury of Botany," states that the East Indian variety 
has long pods, with six to twelve seeds, while the West Indian 
variety has shorter pods, containing one to four seeds. Seed- 
lings undoubtedly show considerable variation in the size and 
quality of their fruit, which accounts for the different "varie- 
ties" which have been noted by many writers. Since none of 
these has yet been propagated vegetatively, they are of little 
horticultural importance. 

The Carissa (Fig. 57) 
{Carissa grandifiora, A. DC) 

For its ornamental value as well as its edible fruits the carissa 
deserves to be cultivated throughout the tropics. Within the 
last few years it has become fairly common in southern Florida, 
and it has been found to succeed in southern California. 

The plant is a large, much-branched and spreading shrub, 
reaching 15 or 18 feet in height. It is armed with stout branched 
thorns, and the dense foliage is deep glossy green in color. 
The leaves are ovate-acute, mucronate, thick and leathery, and 
1 to 2 inches long. The flowers, which are borne in small termi- 
nal cymes, are star-shaped, fragrant, and about 2 inches broad. 
The plant blooms most profusely in early spring, but produces 
a few flowers throughout the year. The fruits, most of which 
ripen in summer, are ovoid or elliptic in form, 1 to 2 inches 
long, with a thin skin inclosing the firm granular reddish pulp, 
toward the center of which are several papery almost circular 
seeds. David Fairchild, who studied this plant in Natal (its 
native home), ^vrites of it: "On the markets of Durban the 
long, brilliant red fruit of the amatungula is commonly sold; 
in fact, during January and February it is one of the commonest 
fruits to be seen in the stalls. Though variable in size and 
shape, it has generally an elongated form, with a distinct point, 
and the diameter of a good-sized Damson plum. The thin 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 



437 



red skin covers a pink flesh with a milky juice, which in flavor 
is sweet but lacks character, although much praised by European 
residents for use in making fruit salads." 

The name under which this fruit is known in Natal is ama- 
tungula. In the United States it is called Natal-plum as well 
as carissa. The bo- 
tanical name Arduina 
gmndiflora, E. Mey., 
is a synonym of Carissa 
grandifiora. 

In Florida, the car- 
issa is not generally 
relished when eaten out 
of hand. When stewed 
it yields a sauce which 
greatly resembles that 
made from cranberries. 
It is also used for jelly 
and preserves. Ac- 
cording to an analysis 
made in Hawaii by 
Alice R. Thompson, its 
chief chemical constit- 
uents are : Total solids 
21.55 per cent, ash 
0.43, acids 1.19, protein 
0.56, total sugars 12.00, 
fat 1.03, and fiber 0.91. 

The plant is not ex- 
acting in its climatic requirements. It will grow in warm, 
moist tropical regions, and in the dry subtropics wherever 
the temperature rarely falls below 26° or 28° above zero. In 
California it is sometimes injured by frost, but in southern 
-Florida this is rarely the case. It succeeds on soils of varying 




Fig. 57. The carissa (Carissa grandifiora) is 
a handsome shrub from South Africa, with fra- 
grant white flowers and scarlet fruits whose fla- 
vor suggests raspberries. (X ^) 



438 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

types, red clay, sandy loam, and light sand. It is somewhat 
drought-resistant . 

The carissa is particularly valued as a hedge plant. It 
withstands shearing admirably and its growth is compact and 
low. "To make an amatungula hedge," writes Fairchild, "is 
a very simple matter. The seeds are sown in a seed-bed, and 
when the young plants are six inches high they are trans- 
planted to the place chosen for the hedge and set a foot apart, 
alternately in parallel rows, distant from one another a foot 
or more. As the plants grow they are trimmed into the desired 
hedge form, and the oftener they are trimmed the thicker they 
interweave their tough, thorny branches, making an impene- 
trable barrier for stock of all kinds. When in flower the white 
jasmine-like blossoms show off strikingly against the dark back- 
ground of foliage ; and the red fruit which follows is quite as 
pretty." 

Cuttings, when planted directly after removal from the 
parent bush, do not form roots readily unless grown over 
bottom heat; but a method has been devised by Edward 
Simmonds at Miami, Florida, whereby nearly every one will 
grow. This consists in notching young branchlets while still 
attached to the plant, making a cut halfway through the stem 
3 or 4 inches from the tip. The branchlet is then bent down- 
ward and allowed to hang limply until the end of the second 
month, when a callus will have formed on the cut portion, and 
the cutting may be removed and placed in sand under a lath 
shade, requiring another month to strike roots. 

The carissa is also propagated by layering, and it is not 
dijfRcult to bud, using the common method of shield-budding, 
essentially the same as practiced with the avocado. Late 
spring is the best time to do the work. 

It has been noted in Florida and more particularly in Cali- 
fornia that many carissa plants are unproductive. This matter 
has never been fully investigated, but the preliminary studies 




Plate XXIII. The jackfruit (Artocarpus integrifolia) , the largest 
tropical fruit. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 439 

of Allen M. Groves at Miami, Florida, suggest that the 
difficulty may be due to lack of the necessary insects to 
effect cross-pollination. It has been observed, however, that 
occasional plants uniformly bear heavily, and the vegeta- 
tive propagation of such eliminates all danger of unpro- 
ductiveness. 

There are as yet no named varieties in the trade. 

Another species of carissa, and one which is sometimes con- 
fused with C. grandiflora, is C. Arduina, Lam. (C bispinosa, 
Desf., Arduina bispinosa, L.). This can be distinguished from 
C. grandiflora by the smaller size of the flowers, which are only 
I inch broad in place of nearly 2 inches, with the corolla-seg- 
ments much shorter than the tube ; and by the oblong-obtuse 
fruit, which is only | inch in length and contains one or two 
lanceolate seeds, instead of fifteen or twenty circular ones. 
The species is not commonly cultivated in the United States, 
but is said to be used as an ornamental plant in Cape Town, 
South Africa. 

The karanda (Carissa Carandas, K. Sch.), a species common 
in India, has been introduced into the United States, but is 
not often planted either in California or Florida. It is dis- 
tinguished from C. grandiflora and C. Arduina by the corolla- 
lobes being twisted to the right instead of to the left in the bud ; 
by the oblong or elliptic-oblong leaves with rounded or obtuse 
tips ; and by the spines being simple in place of bifurcate. Its 
fruits are less than an inch long, and contain three or four 
seeds. They are used in India for pickles and preserves. 

The Ramoni'Chi (Fig. 58) 

(Flacourtia Ramontchi, L'Herit.) 

While it must be listed among the minor fruits, the ramon- 
tchi (more commonly known in the West Indies as Governor's- 
plum) is not devoid of interest and merit. It is an excellent 



440 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

hedge plant, and its plum-like fruits, which are produced in 
great abundance, make good jam and preserves. 

If allowed to develop to maximum size, the plant may be- 
come a large shrub or small tree about 25 feet high. It is armed 
with long slender thorns. The leaves are broadly ovate in 
outline, 2 to 3 inches long, acuminate, and commonly serrate. 
The staminate and pistillate flowers are normally produced on 
separate plants, as in the papaya ; it is, therefore, necessary to 




Fig. 58. The ramontchi (Flacourtia Ramontchi) , often called governor's-plum, 
comes from Madagascar. Its maroon-colored fruits, of subacid flavor, are 
valued principally for making preserves. (X f). 

plant trees of both sexes in order to have fruit. The flowers 
are small and inconspicuous, the fruits round, about an inch 
in diameter, and deep maroon colored when fully ripe, having 
a thin skin surrounding soft juicy pulp and several small thin 
seeds. The flavor is sweet and agreeable in some varieties, 
acid and somewhat strong in others. 

The ramontchi is considered a native of southern Asia 
and Madagascar. It is now widely scattered throughout the 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 441 

tropics, but is not extensively cultivated in any region. It can 
be grown in southern Florida as far north as Fort Pierce. In 
California it has never been very successful. With protec- 
tion during the first winters it may be possible to grow it in 
the mildest sections of the latter state. It withstands light frosts 
after it has attained a few years' growth, and is not exacting in 
its cultural requirements. It grows on soils of various types, 
and in moist climates as well as in those which are rather dry. 
Propagation is usually effected by means of seeds. When 
multiplied in this manner, however, many more male plants 
are produced than are required for the pollination of the 
females, and it is not possible to perpetuate choice varieties. 
Vegetative propagation, most likely by means of budding, will 
have to be applied to this species before its cultivation can 
be made altogether satisfactory. 

The Umkokolo (Fig. 59) 
{Dovyalis caffra, Warb.) 

While its scented fruit is not of great value for eating out of 
hand, the umkokolo, often called in English kei-apple, is a 
useful and interesting plant. It is unexcelled for hedges in 
regions where the temperature does not commonly fall below 
20° above zero. 

The native home of the species is on the Kei River in South 
Africa. It is a tall vigorously-growing shrub, with rich green 
foliage and long, stiff, sharp thorns. The leaves are oblong- 
obovate, about 2 inches in length, often in small clusters at the 
bases of the thorns. Staminate and pistillate flowers are pro- 
duced on separate plants, and both are without petals. The 
fruit is oblate or nearly round, bright golden yellow, and about 
1 inch in diameter. The thin skin incloses a yellow, melting, 
juicy pulp and five to fifteen flattened pointed seeds. The 
flavor is aromatic, highly acid unless the fruit is fully ripe. 



442 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 



Because of this, the fruit is most commonly used to make jam 
and preserves. 

Outside of its native region the umkokolo has been planted 
to a limited extent along the shores of the Mediterranean in 
France, Algeria, and Italy ; in northwestern Australia ; and in 

Florida and California. 

l-'Sr^ In Florida it is said to 
have succumbed to the 
cold during the severe 
winter of 1894-1895, 
and in California it has 
been killed by tem- 
peratures of 16° above 
zero. The usual win- 
ter temperatures in the 
southern parts of both 
states, however, are too 
high to injure it, and 
the species can be 
grown safely as far 
north as the Lake re- 
gion in central Florida 
and favored sections of 
the San Joaquin Valley 
in California. 

Botanically the um- 
kokolo is a Dovyalis 
(latterly written Dory- 
alis), and it is some- 
times listed as Aheria caffra, Harv. & Sond. Umkokolo is 
one of the vernacular names of its native region in South 
Africa. The name kei-apple is often spelled incorrectly kai- 
apple. 

The plant is not exacting in its cultural requirements, and is 




Fig. 59. The umkokolo or kei-apple {Dovy- 
alis caffra) is a large thorny shrub from South 
Africa, excellent for hedges. (X I) 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 443 

decidedly drought-resistant. It is most successful in a sub- 
tropical climate, and on a soil rich in humus. 

It is considered one of the best hedge plants in South Africa, 
since its long sharp thorns make it impenetrable. To form a 
hedge the bushes should be set 3 to 5 feet apart, and should be 
trimmed on both sides once a year. For the production of 
fruit, they should not be set closer than 12 to 15 feet, and both 
staminate and pistillate plants must be present. One of the 
former (male) is considered to be sufficient for twenty to thirty 
of the latter (female). If sufficient seedling plants are grown 
so that there are sure to be some of both sexes, satisfactory 
results will be obtained; otherwise, it is best to propagate 
staminate and pistillate plants by layering or some other 
vegetative means, and to plant no more staminates than will 
be required to furnish pollen. 

In the Mediterranean region and in the United States, the 
plants flower in April and May and ripen their fruit from 
August to October. Seeds may be sown in pans or flats of 
light sandy loam. Plants propagated in this manner will 
begin to bear when four or five years old. Propagation by 
layering is practiced in Queensland, and the species will prob- 
ably lend itself to shield-budding, since P. J. Wester has shown 
that another member of the same genus can be propagated 
readily in this way. The ripe fruit is sometimes attacked by 
the Mediterranean fruit-fly {Ceratitis capitata Wied.). 

The Ketembilla 

(Dovyalis hebecarpa, Warb.) 

The ketembilla is a better fruit than its congener the um- 
kokolo, but the plant is somewhat more limited in its distri- 
bution. From its native home in Ceylon it has been brought 
to the Western Hemisphere, where it may now be found in a 
few gardens in Florida, Cuba, and California; elsewhere it is 



444 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

little known. Since it is more tropical in its requirements than 
the umkokolo, it is not suitable for cultivation in the Medi- 
terranean basin, except perhaps in the most favored situations. 

In growth and habit the plant is less robust than its congener, 
although it reaches about the same ultimate height, 15 to 20 
feet. The branches are slender, often drooping under the weight 
of their fruit, and the thorns are long and sharp, but not so 
formidable as those of the umkokolo. The leaves are lanceolate 
or oval in outline, acute, entire or subserrate, and 2 to 4 inches 
long. The fruit is of the same size and form as that of the 
umkokolo, but maroon-purple in color and more velvety on 
the surface. The purplish pulp is sweet and luscious, with a 
flavor resembling that of the English gooseberry, a fruit which 
the ketembilla suggests so strongly in appearance and character 
as to give rise to the common name Ceylon-gooseberry. Aheria 
Gardnerii, Clos., is a botanical synonym. 

The plant does not withstand drought as well as the umkokolo, 
and is injured by temperatures considerably above 20°. While 
it succeeds in southern Florida, the climate of most parts of 
southern California has usually proved too cold for it. It likes 
plenty of moisture, both in the atmosphere and in the soil, 
and under proper conditions bears enormous crops of its attrac- 
tive fruits. 

The distribution of the sexes is the same in this species as in 
the umkokolo, and it is, therefore, necessary to insure the 
proximity of staminate and pistillate plants if fruit is desired. 
It has been reported that isolated plants of both species are 
sometimes fruitful, which suggests that they may in occasional 
instances produce perfect flowers and not require cross-polli- 
nation. If plants of such character are found, they should be 
propagated by budding or grafting, since they would be of con- 
siderable value. P. J. Wester reports that shield-budding is 
successful. He says: "Use petioled, preferably spineless, 
not too old budwood with tomentum still present ; cut buds an 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 



445 



inch to an inch and a quarter long ; age of stock at point of 
insertion of buds unimportant." Propagation by seeds is 
easily effected, as with the umkokolo. 



The White Sapote (Fig. 60) 
(Casimiroa edulis, La Llave) 

In the highlands of 
Mexico and Central 
America, where it is 
believed to be indige- 
nous, the white sapote 
ranks among the prin- 
cipal cultivated fruits. 
Outside of this region 
it is not well known, 
although it has, in re- 
cent years, attracted 
attention in California 
and Florida. 

The Aztecs of ancient 
Mexico used the term 
tzapotl to designate soft 
sweet fruits such as the 
sapodilla and its allies. 
The lack of acidity and 
the heavy sweetness of 
these fruits makes them 
less acceptable to pal- 
ates accustomed to ap- 
ples and peaches than 
the mangosteen and certain other tropical fruits. They are, 
however, liked by many northerners, and natives of tropical 
regions consider them perfect. 




Fig. 60. The white sapote {Casimiroa edulis), 
a common fruit of the Mexican and Central 
American highlands, is now grown in California 
and Florida. (X |) 



446 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The white sapote is a medium-sized erect or spreading tree, 
having palmately compound leaves, small inconspicuous flowers, 
and yellowish green fruits the size of an orange. The fruits 
have a thin membranous skin, yellowish flesh of soft melting 
texture and sweet or slightly bitter flavor, and one to five large 
oval or elliptic seeds. 

In its native region the white sapote is a fruit of the high- 
lands. Throughout Mexico and Guatemala it is found at ele- 
vations of 2000 to 3000 feet, and occasionally as high as 9000 
feet. It is not grown in regions subject to heavy rainfall. 

It has borne fruit at La Mortola, in southern Italy, and is 
occasionally seen elsewhere on the Riviera. It is said also to 
have fruited in the island of Jersey. Although introduced into 
California from Mexico about 1810, it has not yet become 
extensively cultivated in that state, and large trees are rare. 
One of the oldest, believed to have been planted more than a 
century ago, is growing on De La Guerra Street in Santa 
Barbara. A number of younger trees, most of them propa- 
gated by F. Franceschi and distributed about 1895, are fruiting 
in various parts of southern California; although some of 
these produce small bitter fruits, others bear large ones of deli- 
cious flavor. In Florida the species has not been cultivated 
so long as in California, but it has proved quite successful in 
the southern part of the state. 

The Aztec name for this fruit is cochiztzapotl, meaning " sleep- 
producing sapote." It is commonly known in INIexico at the 
present day as zapote bianco (white sapote). In Guatemala it 
is called matasano. 

The fruit is usually eaten fresh, but attempts have been 
made in Central America to prepare a sweet preserve from it oh 
a commercial scale. Some of the early writers considered the 
white sapote unwholesome, and stated that it would induce 
sleep if indulged in too freely, but recent experience does not 
indicate that there are grounds for such beliefs. Francisco 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 447 

Hernandez observed that the seed, if eaten raw, was poisonous 
to animals and men. An analysis of the fruit made at the 
University of California shows it to contain : Water 72,64 per 
cent, ash 0.44, protein 0.64, total sugars 20.64 (invert sugar 
8.44, sucrose 12.20), fat 0.46, crude fiber 1.26, and starch and the 
like 3.92. 

In its climatic requirements the tree is distinctively sub- 
tropical. It is not altogether successful in Central America 
below 3000 feet, and it thrives at elevations of 5000 to 6000 feet. 
It is even found in places which are too high {i.e., too cold) 
for the avocado. It prefers a well-drained sandy loam, but 
may be grown on clay if the drainage is good, and in Florida 
it has done well on shallow sandy soils underlaid with soft 
limestone. It is drought-resistant, but succeeds much better 
in dry regions if irrigated like the orange. 

While young, the tree should be watered liberally to en- 
courage growth, and when it is about three feet high it should 
have the terminal bud removed, in order to induce branching ; 
three or four laterals will develop, and these in turn, after 
they have grown to a length of one or two feet, should have the 
terminal buds removed. Unless this is done, the tree may 
grow ten or twelve feet high before it branches. 

Seeds should be planted as soon as possible after their 
removal from the fruit in flats of light porous soil, or singly 
in three-inch pots, covering them to the depth of an inch. If 
the weather is warm, or artificial heat is provided, germina- 
tion will take place within three or four weeks. The young 
plants should be grown in pots until two or three feet high, 
when they may be set out in the open ground. 

Seedlings do not come into bearing until seven or eight 
years old, and many produce fruit of inferior quality. For 
this reason propagation should be effected by some vegetative 
means. Shield-budding is successfully practiced, the method 
being essentially the same as with the avocado. Stock plants 



448 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

should be selected from young vigorous seedlings whose stems 
are about | inch in diameter at the base. Budwood is taken 
from the ends of the branches, but of fairly well matured wood 
which has acquired an ash-gray color. The buds are cut 
about 1| inches long, leaving any wood that may adhere to 
them, and are inserted in T-incisions, after which they are 
bound firmly in place with waxed tape. At the end of two 
to four weeks, depending on the weather, they may be un- 
wrapped and then rewrapped loosely, leaving the bud exposed 
so that it may start into growth, at the same time lopping back 
the stock to a point three or four inches above the bud. In 
the tropics budding can probably be done at almost any season 
of the year ; in California spring and summer, when the stock 
plants are in most active growth, are the best times. 

Seedling variation results in some trees being very produc- 
tive, while others bear little fruit. No budded trees have 
yet come into bearing. The ripening season in Guatemala is 
April and May; in Florida it is May; in Mexico it extends 
from May to July; and in California it begins in September 
and ends in November. Because of its thin skin and delicate 
texture, the fruit does not ship well, unless picked while still 
hard and dispatched so as to reach its destination before it 
has had time to soften. 

Several horticultural varieties have been described, but none 
has been propagated or planted extensively. Harvey and 
INIaechtlen are two which have been offered by the trade in 
California; Parroquia and Gillespie have been described, but 
not propagated. 

The Tuna 

(Opuntia spp.) 

Several species of Opuntia, notably 0. Ficus-indica, Mill., 
and 0. megacantha, S. D., are extensively grown in tropical and 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 449 

subtropical countries for their fruits, commonly known as tunas, 
prickly-pears, or Indian figs. 

Among the aboriginal inhabitants of tropical America, the 
tuna (using this term in a comprehensive sense) has long been 
held in high esteem. It was early introduced into southern 
California by the Franciscan monks, and is now found abun- 
dantly in many places, particularly around the old missions. 
From America it was carried to Spain by the early voyagers, 
and from that country it spread along the Mediterranean 
littoral and finally to many other regions. It is now cultivated 
and naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics. 

The edible-fruited opuntias are erect or spreading plants, 
growing from 10 to 25 feet in height. They have large flat- 
tened branches made up of more or less rounded joints, which 
in popular language are called leaves. Usually these joints 
bear long sharp spines, although in some species they are almost 
spineless. The flowers, which are produced toward the upper 
part of the joints, are yellow or red and rather showy. The 
oblong to pear-shaped fruits, commonly 2 to 3 inches in length 
and green to deep maroon in color, contain soft, whitish, trans- 
lucent pulp intermixed with numerous large bony seeds. The 
pulp is juicy with a pleasant, although not pronounced, flavor. 
The principal objection to the tunas is the great quantity of 
hard seeds which they contain. 

0. Ficus-indica has fewer spines and somewhat differently 
colored fruit from 0. megacantha; both these species are 
cultivated in the southwestern United States as well as in 
Mexico, the Mediterranean region, and elsewhere. Several 
other species produce edible fruits, but their cultivation is not 
extensive. 

A considerable quantity of tunas is shipped annually to the 
United States from Sicily, and an important trade could be 
developed betweeen the United States and Mexico. 

Because of its rather high nutritive value, the tuna forms 
2g 



450 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

an important article of diet in many regions. It is eaten fresh, 
dried, or prepared in various ways. Griffiths and Hare have dis- 
cussed this subject fully in " The Tuna as Food for Man. " ^ The 
ripe fruit contains : Total solids 19.66 per cent, ash 0.40, acids 
0.18, protein 0.98, total sugars 13.42, fat 0.23, and fiber 2.79. 

J. W. Toumey, writing in Bailey's " Standard Cyclopedia of 
Horticulture," says : "It has been ascertained that some of the 
best varieties are capable of producing on lean, sandy or rocky 
soil, ill-suited for growing ordinary crops, as much as 18,000 
pounds of fruit to the acre. When it is considered that this 
is equal to 2500 pounds of sugar, as well as other valuable 
food constituents, it may be readily seen that the food value 
from the standpoint of nutrition is considerable." 

Little cultural attention is usually given to the opuntias in 
the regions where they are grown for their fruit. To quote 
Toumey again : " Plantations are usually made on dry slopes 
of hills, as the plants do not thrive where there is much mois- 
ture or on heavy clay soils. Joints, cut or broken from the 
plants, are used instead of seeds, and are planted at distances 
of 6 to 8 feet in furrows from 6 to 15 feet apart. No tillage is 
practiced, as they grow rapidly, and in a few years smother out 
all other growth. Before planting, the cuttings are exposed 
in half sunlight from seven to fifteen days, that they may 
partially wither, in order to facilitate rooting. 

" An important advantage in the culture of these plants is the 
regularity of the yearly crop. They begin to bear in about three 
years after planting, and continue in bearing for many years." 

Numerous varieties or forms, usually local in their distribu- 
tion, are distinguished in Mexico and elsewhere. In spite of the 
attention given in recent years to the improvement of this 
fruit by breeding, still further advances must be made before 
varieties are obtained which will become popular as table- 
fruits among North Americans. 

1 Bui. 116, Bur. Plant Industry. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 



451 



The Pitaya (Fig. 61) 
(Hylocereus, Lemaireocereus, and Cereus) 

The fruits of many cacti are known in tropical America by 
the name pitaya, also spelled pitahaya, pitajaya, pitajuia, 
pitalla, and pithaya. These belong to several genera, formerly 
classified under the genus Cereus, but the best fruits are ob- 
tained from the genera Hylocereus and Lemaireocereus. Pitayas 
are commonly larger 
than tunas, and by 
some are considered 
superior to the latter 
in quality, but their 
use is less extensive. 

The genus Hyloce- 
reus has several species 
which produce good 
fruits. The widely 
cultivated plant which 
usually passes under 
the name of Cereus tri- 
angularis is properly 
Hylocereus undatus, 
Brit, and Rose; the 
true C. triangularis is 

found in Jamaica, but rarely elsewhere. All of these plants 
are climbing in habit, and have three-angled stems. They 
produce large, showy, night-blooming flowers, and oblong or 
oval fruits, bright pink to red in color, sometimes more than 
3 inches in length, with large leaf-like scales on the surface. 
The flesh is white and juicy and is filled with numerous minute 
seeds. In southern Mexico the fruits are used in various ways : 
they may be eaten out of hand ; employed in making cooling 
drinks and sherbets ; and for preserves. 




Fig. 61. The pitaya {Hylocereus undatus) is 
widely cultivated in the American tropics. Its 
bright rose-colored fruits contain white trans- 
lucent pulp of pleasant taste ; they are produced 
by a climbing cactus which bears handsome 
night-blooming flowers. (X 3) 



452 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

Somewhat distinct are the pitayas furnished by several 
species of Lemaireocereus, notably L. griseus, Brit. & Rose, and 
L. queretarensis , Brit. & Rose, and their allies. These are 
common wild plants in Mexico and elsewhere, and L. griseus 
is often cultivated. The fruits are globose, about 2| inches 
in diameter, and covered with many small clusters of spines. 
These are brushed off the red fully ripe fruit, leaving it in 
condition to be eaten. The flesh is dark red to purple, sweet 
and delicious in flavor. 

The propagation and culture of these plants resembles that 
of the tunas; the Hylocereus group, however, is much better 
adapted to a moist tropical climate than the latter. 

The Tree-tomato (Fig. 62) 
(Cyphomandra betacea, Sendt.) 

Several food-plants which were cultivated by the agricultural 
Indians of ancient Peru have become of economic importance to 
the modern world, one of them, the potato, of immense value. 
The tree-tomato, a bush fruit which was planted in their 
gardens high upon the mountain-sides, is now grown in the 
hill-regions of India and Ceylon, as well as in several other 
countries. 

In its native home, where it forms a miniature tree 5 or 6 feet 
high, O. F. Cook says the plant is cultivated at elevations of 
6000 to 10,000 feet. In California it grows 8 or 10 feet high. 
It has large cordate-ovate, subacuminate leaves, small pinkish 
flowers, and oblong fruits produced in clusters of three or more. 
In length these fruits are about 2 inches ; in color and in general 
character they resemble tomatoes, to which they are, of course, 
closely related. "It has become thoroughly established in 
many hill gardens," writes II. F. Macmillan of the tree-tomato 
in Ceylon, "and is commonly grown about Nuwara Eliya for 
market. The egg-shaped and smooth-skinned fruit, produced 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 



453 



in great abundance and in hanging clusters at the ends of the 
branches, is in season almost throughout the year, but chiefly 
from March to May. At first greenish purple, it changes in 
ripening to reddish yel- 
low. The subacid and 
succulent fruits are re- 
freshing and agreeable 
when eaten raw, but 
their chief use is for 
stewing; they may also 
be made into jam or 
preserve. The tree is 
a quick grower, and 
commences to bear fruit 
when about two years 
old, remaining produc- 
tive for several years." 

It has been found in 
California that the 
species withstands sev- 
eral degrees of frost. 
It may be killed back 
to the large limbs by 
a temperature of 26° to 
28° above zero, but it 
promptly recovers. In 
Mexico and Central 
America, where it is 

known as tomate, it is cultivated by the Indians at elevations 
of 4000 to 8000 feet. It likes a rich loamy soil and grows best 
when abundantly irrigated. It does not require a high degree 
of atmospheric humidity. 

Propagation is effected by means of seeds which germinate 
readily and develop rapidly into strong plants. 




Fig. 62. The tree-tomato (Cyphomandra 
betacea) , a fruit produced by a half -woody shrub 
from South America, closely resembles the to- 
mato in character, and is useful in the same 
ways as the latter. (X i) 



454 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

The Genipa 
(Genipa americana, L.) 

In parts of Brazil and in Porto Rico the genipa is a popular 
fruit. Elsewhere it is of little importance. Outside of its 
native area, which is considered to be northeastern South 
America and the West Indies, it is indeed scarcely known. 

When well grown the tree is stately and handsome in appear- 
ance. It reaches a height of 60 feet or more, and has a straight, 
slender trunk branching 10 or 15 feet above the ground. The 
leaves are oblong-obovate in form, entire or dentate, dark green 
in color, and about a foot long. The flowers, which in Brazil 
are produced in November, are small, and light yellow in color. 
The fruits are the size of an orange, broadly oval to spherical 
in form, and russet-brown. After being picked they are not 
ready to be eaten until they have softened and are bordering 
on decay. Beneath the membranous skin is a thin layer of 
granular flesh, and within this a mass of soft brownish pulp in 
which numerous small compressed seeds are embedded. The 
flavor is characteristic and very pronounced ; it may be likened 
to that of dried apples, but is stronger, and the aroma is more 
penetrating. 

The genipa, known in Brazil as genipapo, in Porto Rico as 
jagua, and in the British West Indies as genipap and mar- 
malade-box, is eaten fresh, and used to prepare an alcoholic 
beverage known as licor de genipapo. A refreshing drink 
known as genipapada is also made from it, and, when green 
it furnishes a dye used by some of the Brazilian Indians in 
tattooing. 

In its climatic requirements the tree is tropical. It is not 
known to have been grown in California or Florida, although 
it might succeed in the southern part of the latter state. It 
prefers a humid atmosphere and a deep rich loamy soil con- 
taining plenty of moisture. Propagation is usually by seeds, 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 455 

which are easily germinated. P. J. Wester, who has experi- 
mented with the tree in the Philippines, finds that it can be 
shield-budded in the same manner as the avocado. He says : 
"Use mature, bluish-green, smooth, non-petioled budwood; 
cut the buds about an inch and a half long; age of stock at 
point of insertion of bud unimportant." By utilizing this 
method of propagation it will be possible to perpetuate choice 
varieties which originate as chance seedlings, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Much of the literature on tropical fruits exists in the form 
of bulletins and brief articles in the horticultural press. Refer- 
ence has been made in the text of this work to the most im- 
portant. 

The more extensive works containing information on the 
history, cultivation, varieties, pests and diseases of tropical 
fruits are listed below. An asterisk is placed before those which 
will be found particularly useful by the tropical horticulturist 
or fruit-grower. 

Balloxj, H. a., Insect Pests of the Lesser Antilles. Pamphlet No. 71 
of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. 
Barbados. 1912. 

Benson, Albert H., Fruits of Queensland. Department of Agri- 
culture and Stock, Brisbane. 1911. 

*Capus, G., and Bois, D., Les Produits Coloniaux, Origine, Produc- 
tion, Commerce. Librairie Armand Colin, Paris. 1912. 

Clute, Robert L., Practical Lessons in Tropical Agriculture, Book 1. 
The World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y. and Manila, 
P. I. 1914. 

*CooK, Melville T., The Diseases of Tropical Plants. Macmillan 
and Co., Ltd., London. 1913. i 

*CooK, O. F., and Collins, G. N., Economic Plants of Porto Rico. 
Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, vol. 
VIII, pt. 2. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1903. 

DeCandolle, Alphonse, Origin of Cultivated Plants. 2d ed. In- 
ternational Scientific Series. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and 
Co., Ltd., London. 1909. 



456 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS 

*EssiG, E. O., Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California, 2d ed. 

State Commission of Horticulture, Sacramento, California. 

1915. 
*Fenzi, E. 0., Frutti Tropieali e Semitropicali (esclusi gli Agrumi). 

Institute Agricolo Coloniale Italiano, Firenze. 1915. 
FiRMiNGER, Thomas A. C, Manual of Gardening for Bengal and 

Upper India. Barnham, Hill and Co., Calcutta. 1869. 
Haldane, R. C, Subtropical Cultivations and Climates, a Handy 

Book for Planters, Colonists, and Settlers. WiUiam Blackwood 

and Sons, Edinburgh and London. 1886. 
*HuBERT, Paul, Fruits des Pays Chauds, tome 1. H. Dunod et E. 

Pinat, Paris. 1912. 
Ikeda, T., The Fruit Culture in Japan. Seibi do, Tokyo. Without date. 
JuMELLE, Henri, Les Cultures Coloniales, Legumes et Fruits. 2d ed. 

Librairie J. B. BaUliere et fils, Paris. 1913. 
*Macmillan, H. F., a Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Plant- 
ing, with special reference to Ceylon. 2d ed. H. W. Cave and 

Co., Colombo, Ceylon. 1914. 
Maxwell-Leproy, H., Indian Insect Life, a Manual of the Insects 

of the Plains. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta and Simla. 1909. 
Pierce, W. Dwight, A Manual of Dangerous Insects Likely to be 

Introduced into the United States through Importations. Office 

of the Secretary, United States Department of Agriculture. Gov- 
ernment Printing Office, Washington. 1917. 
*PiTTiER, H., Ensayo sobre las Plantas Usuales de Costa Rica. H. L. 

and J. B. McQueen, Inc., Washington, D. C. 1908. 
*PoPENOE, Paxjl B., Date Growing in the Old World and the New. 

West India Gardens, Altadena, California. 1913. 
Reasoner, p. W., and Klee, W. G., Report on the Condition of 

Tropical and Semi-tropical Fruits in the United States in 1887. 

Bulletin 1, Division of Pomology, United States Department of 

Agriculture, Washington. 1891. 
Ribera Gomez, D. Emilio, Manual sobre Arboles Frutales, Escrito 

especialmente para America. Garnier Hermanos, Paris. No 

date. 
Riviere, Ch., and Lecq, H., Cultures du Midi, de I'Algerie, et de la 

Tunisie. J. B. Bailliere et fils, Paris. 1906. 
*RoEDiNG, George C, Roeding's Fruit Growers' Guide. Published 

by the author, Fresno, California. 1919. 
*Safford, W. E., The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam, with an 

Introductory Account of the Physical Features and Natural History 

of the Island, of the Character and History of its People, and of their 

Agriculture. Contributions from the United States National 

Herbarium, vol. IX. Government Printing Office, Washington. 

1905. 





\^ Plate XXIV. Upper, the mangosteen ; lower, the durian. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 457 

*Sauvaigo, Emile, Les Cultures sur le Littoral de la Mediterranee ; 
Provence, Ligurie, Algerie. 2d ed. Librairie J. B. Bailliere 
et fils, Paris. 1913. 

Von Mueller, Ferdinand, Select Extra-Tropical Plants Readily 
Eligible for Industrial Culture or Naturalization. American 
edition, revised and enlarged. George S. Davis, Detroit, Michigan. 
1884. 

*Watt, Sir George, The Commercial Products of India, being an 
abridgment of " The Dictionary of the Economic Products of 
India." E. P. Dutton and Co., New York. 1908. 

*Wester, p. J., Plant Propagation in the Tropics. Bulletin 32 of 
the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, P. I. 1916. 

WiCKsoN, Edward J., The California Fruits and How to Grow Them. 
The Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco, California. 1910. 

Wilcox, E. V., Tropical Agriculture, the Climate, Soils, Cultural 
Methods, Crops, Live Stock, Commercial Importance and Oppor- 
tunities of the Tropics. D. Appleton and Co., New York and 
London. 1916. 

Wilder, Gerrit P., Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands. Revised ed. 
The Hawaiian Gazette Co., Ltd., Honolulu. 1911. 

*Woodrow, G. Marshall, Gardening in India, 5th ed. Printed at the 
Education Society's Press, BycuUa, Bombay. 1889. 

WooDROW, G. Marshall, The Mango : Its Culture and Varieties. 
Alexander Gardener, Paisley. 1904. 

Yule, Sir Henry, and Burnell, Arthur Coke, Hobson-Jobson ; 
being a glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial words and phrases, 
etymological, historical, geographical and discursive. New 
edition, edited by William Crooke. J. Murray, London. 1903. 



INDEX 



ababai, 228. 
abacate, 19. 

Abbevillea Fenzliana, 310. 
Aberia caffra, 442. 

Gar drier ii, 444. 
abi, 349. 
abiu, 349. 

abrico do Para, 402. 
abricot de Saint Domingue, 402. 
Abu-1 Fazl-i-'Allami, 88. 
acajou, noix de, 150. 
acaju, 149. 

Achradelpha mammosa, 341. 
Achras mammosa, 341. 

Sapota, 334. 
acosta, 16. 

Advance loquat, 263, 265. 
advogado, 19. 
Afoos mango, 142. 
aguacate, 15. 
ahuacate, 17. 
Akbar, emperor, 79, 87. 
akee, 330. 
albecata, 17. 
albero del pane, 411. 
Alcocer, Gabriel, 270. 
Allahabad guava, 279. 
Allen, W. J., 243. 
alligator-apple, 164, 192. 

pear, 17. 
Alphonse group of mangos, 140. 

mango, 91, 92, 108, 126. 
am, 84. 

amatungula, 436, 437. 
amba, 87. 

ambarella, 154, 155. 
ambatjang, 82. 
ambchur, 94. 
ambeh, 87. 

Amblyrrhinus poricollis on litchi, 
ambosi, 94. 
ambsath, 94. 
amburan, 87. 



324. 



American Pomological Society, 7. 

Amini mango, 124, 126, 127, 140, 141. 

Amiri mango, 141. 

Amir Khusrau, 79, 88. 

am-khushk, 94. 

am-ki-chhitta, 94. 

Amlasi pomegranate, 382. 

amra, 85. 

ainrapesi, 94. 

Amri date, 219. 

amrud, 275. 

anab, 385. 

Anacardiaceae, 81. 

Anacardium occidentale, 81, 146. 

anar, 377. 

butterfly on pomegranate, 382. 

caterpillar on loquat, 264. 
Anastrepha on guava, 279. 

fraferculus on mango, 130. 

ludens on mango, 130, on sapodilla, 
339. 
'anba, 87. 

Andre, Edouard, 292, 295, 299. 
Andre feijoa, 299. 
aniba, 87. 
Annona biflora, 180. 

Cherimola, 161. 

cinerea, 180. 

diversifolia, 188. 

Forskahlii, 180. 

glabra, 163, 171, 176, 191. 

laurifolia, 192. 

longifiora, 192. 

macrocarpa, 163. 

montana, 192. 

m,uricata, 182. 

palustris, 192. 

purpurea, 184, 193. 

reticulata, 163, 164, 165, 171, 176, 186. 

scleroderma, 193. 

squamosa, 177. 

suavissima, 164. 

testudinea, 194. 

tripetala, 164. 



459 



460 



INDEX 



anon, 176. 

anona blanca, 180, 190. 

colorada, 187. 

de dedos pintados, 176. 

del monte, 194. 

picuda, 176. 
anone, 164. 
anthracnose on loquat, 263. 

on mango, 121, 128. 
antipolo, 411. 
aoacatl, 16. 
Aphis pomi on loquat, 264. 

green apple, on loquat, 264. 
Apoos mango, 142. 
apple, alligator, 164. 

bell, 248. 

custard, 164. 

kai, 441. 

kei, 441. 

malay, 309. 

mammee, 402. 

mango, 135. 

mountain, 309. 

Otaheite, 156, 309. 

pond, 177, 191. 

rose, 291, 305. 

star, 344. 

sugar, 177. 
ara54, 285. 

da praia, 281. 

do Pard, 285. 

guaeu, 275. 

vermelho, 281. 
Arbela tetraonis on litchi, 324. 
drbol del pan, 411. 
arbre h pain, 411. 
Arbuthnot mango, 91. 
Archips postvittuanus on litchi, 325. 
Arduina bispinosa, 439. 

grandiflora, 437. 
Aristoclesia esculenta, 404. 
arrak, 202, 216. 
Artocarpus communis, 406. 

incisa, 411. 

Integra, 417. 

integrifolia, 414. 

odoratissima, 420. 
arvore do pao, 411. 
Ascherasi date, 220. 
Asharasi date, 219, 220. 
Asimina triloba, 161, 173, 193. 



Aspidiotus on guava, 278. 

on mango, 132. 

destructor on papaya, 239. 

perniciosus on loquat, 264. 
Aswad pomegranate, 382. 
ata, 179, 180. 
ate, 179. 
atemoya, 177. 
atte, 180. 

Augustus, J. C, 394. 
Aulacaspis miranda on cherimoya 

175. 
Averrhoa Bilimbi, 431. 

Carambola, 428. 
avigato, 17. 
avocado, budding of, 41. 

climate and soil suited to, 23. 

cultivation of, 30. 

grafting of, 49. 

history of, 14. 

pests and diseases of, 58. 

propagation of, 40. 

pruning of, 38. 

races and varieties, 65. 

seedling, 40. 
avocat, 19. 
avocato, 17. 
ayer-ayer, 427. 



Baber, Sultan, 87. 

bachang, 82. 

Back, E. A., 291. 

Bacillus amylovorus on loquat, 262. 

mangiferce on mango, 129. 
bacury-pary, 405. 
Bailey, L. H., 357, 362. 
Baker, C. F., vi, 4. 
bakupari, 404, 405. 
bakuri, 403. 
balimbing, 430, 432. 
Ballou, H. A., 455. 
Banchore mango, 91. 

of Dhiren mango, 91. 
Baramassia mango, 124. 
barbadine, 248. 
Barber, H. S., 60. 
Barnhart, P. O., 327. 
Barrett, O. W., 425. 
Batocera rubra on jackfruit, 419. 



INDEX 



461 



tryoni on loquat, 264. 

tryoni on mango, 130. 
Baum, Henry E., 408. 
bau.no, 82. 
Beagles, R. L., 387. 
Beccari, O., 199. 
Beck, Herbert, 91. 
Bedana litchi, 325. 
Belgrave, W. N. C, 301. 
bell-apple, 248. 
Belling, John, 109. 
Bennett mango, 120, 141. 
Benson, Albert H., 254, 455. 
Bephrata cubensis on cherimoya, 175. 
ber, 385. 
Berg, Otto, 281. 
Besson feijoa, 299. 
bhaduria, 124. 
bibace, 255. 
bilambu, 432. 
bilimbi, 431. 
bilimbines, 430. 
binjai, 82. 
biribd, 194. 
Birkawi date, 221. 
Birket al-Hajji date, 221. 
Biscochuelo mango, 136. 
biwa, 255. 

Blake, Sidney F., vii. 
Blakeman avocado, 8, 73. 
Blanco, Manuel, 371. 
Bligh, William, 409. 
Blighia sapida, 330. 
blight, pear, on loquat, 262. 
blimbee, 432. 
blimbing, 422, 432. 
Blume, C. L., 81, 133. 
Bois, D., 455. 
Bombay mango, 91, 108, 135. 

No. 23 mango, 91. 

No. 24 mango, 91. 
Bonavia, E., v, 108, 313, 316, 320, 

323. 
bonavist bean as cover-crop for 

mango, 105. 
Bontius, Jacobus, 390. 
bor, 385. 
borers on cherimoya, 175. 

on date, 217. 
Bowrey, J. J., 331. 
box, marmalade, 454. 



Boyle, Harry H., 330. 

Brandis, Dietrich, 86. 

Brazil-cherry, 289. 

Brazilian guava, 279. 

breadfruit, 406. 

breadnut, 411. 

breiapfel, 336. 

Brewster, William N., 318, 320, 323. 

Britoa acida, 285. 

brotbaum, 411. 

bulla, 411. 

bullock's-heart, 177, 186. 

bumbum, 82. 

Burnell, A. C, 457. 

Burnette, F. H., 359. 

Burns, William, v, 118, 125, 132, 142. 



cabelluda, 310. 
cabeza de negro, 193. 
cachiman, 187. 

cceur-de-boeuf, 187. 

epineux, 184. 
caimite, 4, 346. 
caimito, 346. 
caimo, 350. 
caja, 160. 
caja-manga, 156. 
Cajanus indicus, 33. 
caju, 149. 
cajuada, 150. 
California, possibility of growing 

tropical fruits in, 5, 6. 
Calocarpum mammosum, 340. 

viride, 343. 
Calophyllum calaba, 398. 

inophyllum, 398. 
Cambodiana group of mangos, 144. 

mango, 98, 120, 124, 127, 133, 144. 
camias, 432. 

Campomanesia Fenzliana, 311. 
Candolle, Alphonse De, 84, 86, 164, 
178, 183, 228, 274, 315, 326, 349, 
376, 392, 416, 455. 
canistel, 347. 
capulasan, 330. 
capulin, 268. 
Capus, G., 455. 
Carabao mango, 93, 134. 
carambola, 428. 



462 



INDEX 



Caricaceae, 225. 

Carica candamarcensis, 240. 

Papaya, 225. 

quercifolia, 241. 
Carissa, 436. 

Arduina, 439. 

Carandas, 439. 

grandiflora, 436. 
Caryoborus gonagra on tamarind, 435. 
Caryophyllus Jambos, 305. 

malaccensis, 309. 
cds, 283. 
cashew, 81, 146. 
Casimiroa edulis, 194, 445. 
castanha, 150. 
Cayenne-cherry, 289. 
Cellon, George B., v, 40, 41, 54, 56. 
Cerasus Capollin, 268, 
Ceratitis on guava, 279. 

capitata on avocado, 61. 

on kaki, 365. 

on kei-apple, 443. 

on loquat, 264. 

on mango, 130. 

on papaya, 239. 

on pitanga, 291. 

on pomegranate, 382. 

on sapodilla, 339. 
Cereus triangularis, 451. 
cereza, 268. 
cereza de Cayena, 289. 
cerise carree, 289. 
cerise de Cayenne, 289. 
Ceroplastes on guava, 278. 

floridensis on avocado, 60. 

on loquat, 264. 
Ceropute yucese on cherimoya, 175. 
Ceylon-gooseberry, 444. 
chaka, 417. 
chake-baruke, 414. 
chalcid flies on cherimoya, 175. 
Challenge avocado, 20. 
chamach, 284. 
champada, 184. 

Champagne loquat, 256, 263, 265, 266. 
champola de guandbana, 182. 
chang chow-ling, 312. 
Chappelow avocado, 20, 56. 
Charaxes fabius on tamarind, 435. 
Chase, J. Smeaton, vii. 
Chauveaud, G. L., 111. 



cherimolier, 164. 
cherimoya, 161. 
cherry, Brazil, 289. 

Cayenne, 289. 

Florida, 289. 

Surinam, 289. 
chewing-gum, 335. 
chicle, 335. 
chico, 336. 

mamey, 341. 
chicozapote, 336. 
chiku, 336. 
China litchi, 325. 
chinini, 11. 
Chino mango, 136. 
Chionaspis on mango, 132. 
chirimoya, 164. 

lisa, 176. 

de puas, 176. 

de tetillas, 176. 
Chrysobalanus Icaco, 271. 
Chrysophyllum Cainito, 4, 344. 
Chuckchokia mango, 91. 
Chupadero mango, 134. 
chuta, 85. 
Cicer arietinum as cover-crop for 

mango, 105. 
ciruela, 157. 
Cladosporium citri, 63. 
Clute, Robert I., 455. 
Cobo, Bernabe, 16. 
Coccus on mango, 132. 
cochiztzapotl, 446. 
Cockerell, T. D. A., 217. 
coco-plum, 271. 
Cocos australis, 295. 
codlin-moth on loquat, 263. 
Colletotrichum on avocado, 62. 

gloeosporiodes on loquat, 263. 

on mango, 128. 
Collins, G. N., v, 17, 32, 72, 96, 136, 

159, 340, 455. 
colo, 411. 

Columbus, Christopher, 401. 
Condit, Ira J., v, 257, 258, 261, 262, 

265. 
Conotrachelus persece on avocado, 60. 
Cook, Captain, 89. 

Cook, O. F., V, 159, 194, 340, 452,455. 
Cook, Melville T., 455. 
cork-wood, 192. 



INDEX 



463 



corocao de boi, 187. 

corossol, 184. 

corossolier, batard, 192. 

Correa, M. Pio, 153, 289. 

Costa, Christopher a, 149. 

Costata kaki, 365, 367. 

cowpeas as cover-crop for avocado, 33. 

for mango, 105. 
coyo, 11. 
Cratcegus guatemalensis, 270. 

mexicana, 269. 

stipulosa, 269. 
creme de Creole, 403. 
Crotalaria juncea as cover-crop for 

mango, 105. 
Cryptoblades aliena, on papaya, 239. 

qnidiella on pomegranate, 382. 
Cryptophlebia carpophaga on litchi, 
324. 

illepida on litchi, 324. 
Cryptorhynchus mangiferce on mango, 

131. 
Cupania sapida, 332. 
cura, 18. 
curuba, 249. 

custard-apple, 164, 180, 187, 192. 
Cydia pomonella on loquat, 263. 
Cyphomandra betacea, 452. 

D 

Dacus on guava, 279. 

ferrugineus on mango, 130. 
Dampier, William, 409. 
Daniel, H. L., 396. 
darimba, 377. 
date-palm, 197. 

plum, 356. 
dates, cultivation of, 202. 

pests and diseases, 216. 

picking and packing, 213. 

varieties and classification, 218. 

yield and seasons, 212. 
datte muscade, 200. 
Deglet Nur date, 200, 215, 220. 
Descourtilz, Michel Etienne, 334. 
Devarubria mango, 91. 
De Vries, H., 109. 
Dicera obscura on kaki, 365. 
Dickey No. 2 avocado, 73. 
Dickinson avocado, 68, 74. 



Dimocarpus Longan, 326. 
Dinoderus distinctus on mango, 132. 
Diospyros chinensis, 356. 

discolor, 373. 

Ebenaster, 370. 

kaki, 353. 

Lotus, 362. 

Roxburghii, 356. 

Schitse, 356. 

virginiana, 353, 362. 
doekoe, 428. 
dogdog, 411. 
Doidge, Ethel M., 129. 
Dolichos Lablab as cover-crop for 

mango, 105. 
dorian, 424. 
D'Or mango, 101, 122. 
Dorsett, P. H., vii. 
Doryalis caff r a, 442. 
Douglas Bennett's Alphonse mango, 

141. 
Dovyalis caff r a, 441. 

hebecarpa, 443. 
dragon, ceil de, 326. 
Drummond, Bruce, 197, 204, 206, 

208, 209. 
Dudhia litchi, 325. 
dugdug, 411. 
duku, 428. 
duren, 424. 
durian, 421. 
Durio malaccensis, 424. 

zibethinus, 421. 
durivan, 424. 
duriyan, 424. 

E 

Earle, F. S., v, 181, 185. 
Early Red loquat, 265, 266. 
East, Hinton, 165, 416. 
eau de Creole, 403. 
Edwards, Bryan, 90. 
Eells avocado, 77. 
egg-fruit, 348. 
ElcBis guineensis, 330. 
El Kseba date, 222. 
Ephestia cautella in dates, 218. 
erinose on litchi, 325. 
Eriobotrya japonica, 250. 
Eriophyes on litchi, 325. 



464 



INDEX 



Espada manRO, 137. 
EssiK, E. ()., 203, 450. 
Eugenia brasiliensis, 304. 

Cumini, 305. 

Dornheyi, 303. 

jambolana, 304. 

Jnmhos, 201, 30r). 

Kl„l::^chiana, 307. 

Luaclmathiana, 307. 

malaccensis, 308. 

Michelii, 289. 

Pitanga, 289. 

tomcnlosa, 310. 

wdjldva, 285. 

r/ii«//irt, 309. 
Euphoria Longana, 322, 325. 
em, 160. 



Fairchild, David, v, vii, 1.34, 197, 
234, 253, 204, 383, 380, 391, 
394, 395, 397, 400. 430, 438. 
fan-li-chi, 179. 
Fan! date, 220. 
Fardh date, 200, 220. 
Fandiam, B. F., 91. 
Fawcott, II. S., 05. 
feijoa, 292. 

Feijoa Sellowiana, 292. 
Fonzi, E. O., v, 450. 
fig-moth in dates, 218. 
Filipino manso, 1.34, 135, 1.30. 
Finfiicr-printod (ihorimoya, 170. 
FirmiiiKcr, ThomaH, 103, 309, 334, 

410, 417, 418, 435, 450. 
Flacouriia liamonlchi, 439. 
Florida-cherry, 289. 
Florida, possibility of growing tropi- 
cal fruits in, 5, 0. 
fly, white, on avocado, GO. 
Foox, Felix, 174. 
Forbes, R. XL, 197. 
Franceschi, F., v, vi, 92, 270, 288, 

293, 445. 
Freeman, George F., 197. 
frost-resistance, 7. 
fruit-fly on avocado, 01. 

on (ihcrlmoya, 175. 

on guava, 279. 

on kaki, 305. 

on loquat, 204. 



on mango, 130. 

on papaya, 238. 

on pitanga, 291. 

on pomegranate, 382. 

on sapodilla, 339. 

on soursop, 185. 
fructa da condessa, 195. 

do condo. 179, 180. 
fruta do bomba, 229. 
Fuerte avocado, 20, 21, 45, 58, 66, 68, 

78. 
Fullaway, D. F., 00. 
Fusicladium dendriticum on loquat, 

202. 
Fuyugaki kaki, 307. 

G 

Gable, C. II., 89, 106, 172, 174. 

Gailey kaki, 300, 309. 

gajus, 150. 

Gale, Elbridgo, 91. 

Gamble, Mrs. R. E., vii. 

Gannos, .J. G. de, 393. 

Garcinia Living stonei, 399. 

Mangostana, 390. 

niorcUa, 399. 

tinctoria, 399. 

xanlhochymus, 395, 399. 
Gay, Francis, 397. 
genip, 333. 
genipa, 454. 

aincricana, 454. 
genipap, 454. 
genipapo, 454. 
genipe, 333. 
ghaetsao, 302. 
(ihars date, 221. 
Gillespie white sapote, 448. 
(Jloeosporiiim on avocado, 01. 
(jlomerella on guava, 279. 
goiaba, 275. 
goiabada, 270. 
Gokhale, V. N., 337, 339. 
Gold Nugget loquat, 207. 
Golden date, 219. 

Russet (^herimoya, 175, 176. 

Yellow l()(iuat, 204. 
Gomez, Don .Juan Antonio, 91. 
gooseberry, Ceylon, 444. 
Gopalbhog mango, 91. 



INDEX 



4G5 



goraka-jambo, 289. 
Goro, H. C, 35G, 364. 
Governor's plum, 439. 
goyave, 275. 
Grabham, M., 166. 
granada, 377. 
granadilla, giant, 247. 
I)uri)lo, 241. 
real, 248. 
swoct, 245. 
yellow, 248. 
granalapfol, 377. 
granatum, 377. 
gronado, 377. 
grenadine, 377. 
Griffiths, David, 450. 
Groff, G. W., 31S, 322, 325. 
grosHO sai)ote, 341. 
Groves, Allen M., 439. 
grumiohama, 303. 
grumixama, 304. 
guabiroba, 310. 
guacamole, 23. 
guajava, 275. 
guanaba, 184. 
guandbana, 184. 

eimarrona, 102. 
Guatemalan race of avocados, 71. 
guava, 272. 
Brazilian, 284. 
Costa Rican, 283. 
Guinea, 270. 
lemon, 279. 
Pard, 285. 
pear, 279. 
Porico, 279. 
Peruvian, 279. 
strawberry, 279. 
guayaba, 274. 
aeida, 284. 
guayaljo del pais, 294. 
guayabota, 372. 
guayabote, .372. 
Guinea guava, 279. 
guisaro, 284. 
gvilab-jaraan, 305. 
Guttiferai, 390. 

H 

Haak ip litchi, 325. 
Habersham avocado, 73. 
2h 



Ilaohiya kaki, 357, 305, 367, 368. 
Haden mango, 122, 139. 
riafu mango, 142. 
Halawi (late, 219, 221. 
Ilaldane, \l. C, ^1.56. 
Ilahi poiiu^grariatci, .382. 
Harris, W., 309, 316, 330, 416. 
Hartloss, A. C., v, 118, 123, 125, 

252, 264, 338, 356. 
Harvey whit.o sapote, 448. 
Hawaiian Sweet mango, 134. 
Ilayaiii date!, 221 . 
heart-rot of i)orn(!granate, 382. 
Hohro feijoa, 299. 
Heilipus lauri on avociado, 60. 

pittieri on avocado, (iO. 
Heliuthripii hcemorrhoidaliH (jn avocado, 
59. 
ruhrocincluH on avocado, 59. 
rubrocinctuH on cashew, 152. 
Ilcrrumdoz, Francisco, 16, 187, 1S9, 

447. 
IIoss, W. E., 116. 
hicaco, 271. 

Hiorn, William Philip, 371. 
Higgins, J. E., v, 89, 104, 115, 134, 
226, 231, 236, 2.37, 320, 321, 
322, 323, 327. 
Hodgson, Ilol)crt W., .379, 380, .381. 
Hole, R. S., 86. 
honeysuckle, Jamaica, 248. 
Hooker, .Josei)h, 85, 311, 424. 
Home, W. R., 65. 
Hubcr, Jacfjucs, 14, 148, 194, 228, 

271, 349, 405. 
Hubert, Paul, 134, 181, 251, 418, 

419, 4.56. 
Hume, H. II., vii, 354, 355, 359, 360, 

:',62, .363, •.',M, 365, 366, 367. 
Huntington, I'^llsworth, 202. 
Ilwen T'sang, 86. 
Hyakume kaki, 363, 365, :'.(;7, .3(;9. 
hybrid avocados, 78. 

chorimoyas, 176. 
Hyloccrcus undatus, 451. 



Ihn-al-Awam, 382. 
Ibn liatuta, 87. 
icaco, 271. 



466 



INDEX 



Icerya on guava, 278. 

Idiocerus on mango, 130. 

Idolothrips halidaji on cashew, 152. 

Ikeda, T., 252, 264, 357, 358, 362, 456. 

ilama, 177, 188, 193. 

ilamatzapotl, 190. 

imbu, 152. 

imbuzada, 154. 

India, lack of fruits in, 2. 

Indian meal-moth in dates, 218. 

injerto, 343. 

lorns, M. J., 236. 

ivy, poison, 81. 



jaboticaba, 299. ' 

de cabinho, 302. 

do matto, 302. 

de Sao Paulo, 302. 

macia, 302. 
jaca, 417. 
jack, 422. 
jackfruit, 184, 414. 
jacque, 417. 
Jaffa, M. E., 20, 255. 
jagua, 454. 
jakfruit, 417. 
jaman, 304. 
jambo, 305. 
jambolan, 304. 
Jambosa malaccensis, 309. 

vulgaris, 305. 
jambou, 422. 
jambu, 304, 305. 
jamelac, 309. 
jamelongue, 304. 
Japanese persimmon, 356. 
Java-plum, 304. 
Jew -plum, 156. 
jicaco, 271. 
jobo, 160. 
jocote, 158. 

maranon, 150. 
Johnson, Fred N., 197. 
Johnston, Bernard, 197. 
Johore jackfruit, 419. 
Jones, C. R., 131. 
Jones, Joseph, 393. 
Jordanus, Friar, 87. 
Josselyn, P. E,., 317. 
jujube, 383. 



Julie mango, 121, 122. ' 
julnar, 377. 
Jumelle, Henri, 456. 

K 

Kagdi Pairi mango, 142, 

kai-apple, 441. 

kaju, 150. 

kaki, 353. 

kamrakh, 430. 

kamranga, 430. 

kaniste, 348. 

kantaka, 417. 

kanthal, 417. 

Kao Tsu, 315. 

kapoelasan, 330. 

Karalia guava, 279. 

karanda, 439. 

karmara, 430. 

Kasbeh date, 219, 222. 

Kastawi date, 223. 

kathal, 417. 

Kearney, Thomas H., 197. 

kei-apple, 441. 

Kesba date, 222. 

Kessebi date, 222. 

ketembilla, 443. 

Khadhrawi date, 219, 222. 

Khalaseh date, 199, 222. 

Khastawi date, 223. 

Khustawi date, 222. 

Kingsley, Charles, 345. 

Kinman, C. F., v, 97, 106, 126, 136. 

Klee, W. G., 456. 

knepe, 333. 

Knowles avocado, 26. 

Knuth, Paul, 242, 248. 

kolo, 411. 

Krome, W. J., v, vii, 25, 34, 40, 48, 

51, 54, 63, 254. 
Kulkarni, L. B., 236. 
kuruba, 249. 

Kura-waraka jackfruit, 419. 
Kusano, Takeo, 265. 
kuwini, 82. 



La Forge, F. B 
laichi, 316. 
Lang jujube, 389. 



21. 



INDEX 



467 



langsat, 426. 

lansa, 427. 

lansat, 422. 

lanseh, 427. 

Lansium domesticum, 426. 

lanzon, 427. 

lanzone, 427. 

lechosa, 229. 

Lecq, H., 456. 

leechee, 316. 

lemae, 411. 

lemai, 411. 

Lemaireocereus griseus, 452. 

queretarensis, 452. 
lemay, 411. 
lemon guava, 279. 

water, 248. 
Leon, Pedro de Cieza de, 15. 
lichee, 316. 
lichi, 316. 

licor de genipapo, 454. 
lilikoi, 242. 
limao do matto, 405, 
lime, Spanish, 333. 
lingeng, 326. 
Linnasus, 5. 
Litchi chevelu, 328. 

chinensis, 312. 

nut, 313. 
Loh Mai Chi litchi, 322, 325. 
Long Amini mango, 141. 
long an, 326. 
longan, 322, 325. 
longyen, 326. 
loquat, 250. 

-scab, 262. 
lucmo, 351. 
Lucuma Caimito, 350. 

mammosa, 341. 

nervosa, 347. 

obovata, 351. 

rivicola, 348. 

salicifolio, 350. 
lucumo, 352. 
lu-kiih, 255. 
lukwat, 255. 
Lunan, John, 90. 
lung an, 326. 
lychee, 316. 
Lyon avocado, 52, 68, 74. 

bean as cover-crop for mango, 105. 



M 

mabolo, 373. 

MacCaughey, Vaughan, 167, 168, 
179, 184, 187, 303, 308, 410, 
413, 414. 
Macmillan, H. F., 167, 184, 188, 
240, 241, 247, 248, 249, 281, 
288, 309, 311, 328, 336, 346, 
415, 419, 452, 456. 
Maechtlen white sapote, 448. 
Majhul date, 200, 223. 
Maktum date, 223. 
Malay-apple, 309. 
Malda mango, 91, 122. 
Malum punicum, 377. 
mamao, 229. 
mamey, 401. 

Colorado, 341. 

de Santo Domingo, 402. 

mango, 136. 

zapote, 341. 
Mammea americana, 342, 401. 
mammee, 402. 

-apple, 402. 

-sapota, 341. 
Mammilaris cherimoya, 175. 
mamoncillo, 332. 
Manakhir date, 223. 
manga amarilla, 135. 

blanca, 135. 

da rosa, 137. 

mamey, 136. 

mango, 135. 

monjet, 82. 

pari, 82. 
man-gay, 88. 
mangga, 88. 
manggis, 394. 
Mangifera altissima, 82. 

ccesia, 82. 

fcBtida, 82. 

indica, 81. 

laurina, 82. 

odorata, 82. 

sylvatica, 82. 

verticillata, 82. 

zeylanica, 82. 
mango bark-borer, 131. 

bianco, 136. 

botanical description of, 81. 



468 



INDEX 



climate and soil suited to, 95. 

composition of fruit, 92. 

cultivation of, 101. 

distribution of, 84. 

frost-resistance of, 98. 

fruit-fly, 130. 

history of, 79. 

hopper, 130. 

introduction of to U. S., 90. 

pests and diseases, 128. 

pollination of, 118. 

propagation of, 107. 

races and varieties, 132. 

seedling, 108. 

shoot psylla, 131. 

weevil, 131, 132. 
mangophul, 94. 
mangosteen, 390, 422. 
mangotina, 136. 
mangoustan, 394. 
mangrove annona, 164. 
mangue, 88. 

Manila mango, 108, 134, 136. 
man-kay, 88. 
manzanilla, 269. 
maracuja melao, 248. 
marang, 420. 
maranon, 149. 
Maria, P. Vicenzo, 177. 
Maries, Charles, 79, 125, 133, 137. 
Marignolli, John de, 87, 414. 
Marin, Don Francisco de Paula, 304. 
Markham, Sir Clements, 161. 
Marlatt scale on date, 217. 
marmalade-box, 454. 

-fruit, 341. 

-plum, 341. 
masa pan, 411. 
Mason, Silas C, 197. 
Masters, M. T., 435. 
matasano, 194, 446. 
Maxwell-Lefroy, H., 130, 131, 152, 

419, 435, 456. 
McLean's litchi, 325. 
McMurran, S. M., 128. 
mealy-bug, avocado, 60. 

citrus, on avocado, 60. 
Mediterranean fruit-fly on avocado, 
61. 

on guava, 279. 

on kaki, 365. 



on kei-apple, 443. 

on loquat, 264. 

on mango, 130. 

on papaya, 239. 

on pitanga, 291. 

on pomegranate, 382. 

on sapodilla, 339. 
Medjeheul date, 223. 
Medjool date, 223. 
medlar, Japanese, 255. 
Melicocca bijuga, 332. 
melon tree, 229. 
melon zapote, 229. 
Memminger, Lucien, 150. 
Menakher date, 223. 
Merrill, Elmer D., 371. 
Alespilus germanica, 255, 336. 
Mexican fruit-fly on mango, 130. 
Mexican race of avocados, 76. 
Mexico, origin of avocado in, 14, 15. ' 
Meyer, Frank N., 252, 257, 316, 

325, 326, 354, 362, 382, 385, 387. 
Michael, William H., 94. 
Miller, Jacob, 71, 168. 
Mimusops Kauki, 339. 
Miranda, Conde de, 179. 
Mirzapuri guava, 279. 
mite, red, on papaya, 239. 
mi-tsao, 386. 

Mohur Thakur mango, 125. 
mombin, 150. 

red, 157. 

yellow, 159. 
Monceaux, H., 393. 
Montgomery, Charles, 54. 
Moracese, 406. 
Morrow, J. E., 388. 
Moti Pairi mango, 142. 
mountain-apple, 309. 

soursop, 192. 
Mucuna Lyoni as cover-crop for 

mango, 105. 
Mueller, Ferdinand von, 457. 
Muhammad Tughlak Shah, 79. 
Mulgoba group of mangos, 138. 

mango, 91, 92, 100, 105, 108, 110, 
122, 123, 124, 126, 139. 
Murrieta, John, 71. 
muscade date, 200. 
Mu shing hong jujube, 389. 
]Vtyrciaria cauliflora, 300. 



INDEX 



469 



jaboticaba, 300. 

tenella, 300. 

trunciflora, 300. 
Myrobolan, 160. 
Myrtaceae, 272. 
Myrtle, downy, 311. 
Myrtus tomentosa, 311. 

N 

nabk, 385. 
naghzak, 88. 
naseberry, 336. 
Natal-plum, 437. 
neflier du Japon, 255. ^ 
Nephelium lappaceum, 327, 

Litchi, 316. 

Longana, 326. 

mutabile, 329. 
Nespola giapponese, 255. 
nispero, 336. 

del Japon, 255. 
noix d'acajou, 150. 
Northrop avocado, 77. 
Northrop, James H., 197. 
No. 11 mango, 109, 135. 

O 

ceil de dragon, 326. 

ohia, 156, 308. 

Okame kaki, 364, 365, 367, 369. 

Oliver, George W., 395, 398, 399. 

Opuntia Ficus-indica, 448. 

megacantha, 448. 
Ormond kaki, 368. 
Ord, R. B., 19, 168. 
oriental names, transliteration of, 7. 
Orta, Garcia de, 87, 432. 
Otaheite-apple, 156, 309. 
Oviedo, Gonzalo Hernandez de, 15, 
183, 273, 334, 401. 



Padero mango, 134. 
Paheri mango, 142. 
pahua, 18. 
pahutan, 82. 

mango, 134. 
pai bibaw, 252, 264. 
Pairi mango, 92, 108, 124, 125, 126, 142. 



pajuil, 149, 
palta, 15, 16. 
panasa, 417. 
pao, fruta, 411. 
papaja, 229. 
papauce, 190. 
papaw, 193, 228. 
papaya, 225. 

fruit-fly, 238. 

leaf-spot, 239. 

mountain, 240. 
Papayacese, 225. 
papaye, 229. 

Paper-shell pomegranate, 383. 
papeya, 228. 
papia, 228. 

Parlatoria blanchardii on date, 217. 
Parroquia white sapote, 448. 
Passiflora ccerulea, 243. 

edulis, 241. 

laurifolia, 248. 

ligularis, 245. 

maliformis, 249. 

quadrangularis, 247. 
Passifloracese, 225. 
passion-fruit, 242. 
Peace mango, 135. 
pear, alligator, 17. 

blight on loquat, 262. 

guava, 279. 
Peckholt, Theodore, 229. 
Peni-waraka jackfruit, 419, 
pepper-tree, 81. 
pera do campo, 307. 
Perez, George "V., 167. 
Perico guava, 279. 
Perina nuda on jackfruit, 419. 
Perrine, Henry, 19, 91. 
Per sea americana, 11. 

drymifolia, 11. 

gratissima, 11. 

Pittiera, 11. 

Schiedeana, 11. 
persimmon, Japanese, 356. 

American, 353. 
Peru, avocado in prehistoric, 15. 
Peruvian guava, 279. 
Phaseolus aconitifolius as cover-crop 
for mango, 105. 
Mungo as cover-crop for mango, 
105. 



470 



INDEX 



Philippine mango, 121, 122. 
Phloeothrips anacardii on cashew, 152. 
Phaenicoccus marlatti on date, 217. 
Phcenix canariensis, 198. 

dactylifera, 198. 

sylvestris, 198. 
Photinia japonica, 255. 
Phyllocalyx Luschnathiana, 308. 

tomentosus, 310. 
Pico mango, 134. 
Pierce, W. Dwight, 456. 
pigeon peas as cover-crop for avocado, 

33. 
Pillans, E., 258. 
pina mango, 136. 
pinha, 180. 
pi-pa, 255. 

Pirie mango, 91, 142. 
pistachio nut, 81. 
Pistacia vera, 81. 
pitahaya, 451. 
pitajaya, 451. 
pitajuia, 451. 
pitalla, 451. 
pitanga, 285. 
pitaya, 451. 
pithaya, 451. 
pitomba, 307. 
Pittier, Henry, vii, 246, 335, 341, 

350, 456. 
Placentia Giant loquat, 267. 
plant-breeding, absence of, in the 

tropics, 4. 
plaquemine, 356. 
Platonia insignis, 398, 403. 
Ploccederus ruficornis on mango, 131. 
Plodia inter punctella in dates, 218. 
Plotheia celtis on litchi, 324. 
plum, coco, 271. 

date, 356. 

governor's, 439. 

Japanese, 255. 

Java, 304. 

Jew, 156. 

marmalade, 341. 

Natal, 437. 

Spanish, 158. 
Pollock avocado, 54, 55, 57, 70. 
Polo, Marco, 432. 
polyembryony of mango, 107. 
poma-rosa, 305. 



pomegranate, 375. 

butterfly, 382. 
pomme-cannelle, 180. 

Cythere, 156. 

d'acajou, 150. 

d'or, 249. 

rose, 305. 
pond-apple, 177, 191. 
Popenoe, F. O., 197. 

Paul, vii, 197, 456. 
posh-te., 193. 
Pouteria Caimito, 349. 
Pratt, W. E., 424. 
Premier loquat, 265, 266. 
Proschowsky, A. Robertson, 167, 240, 

247, 288. 
proterogyny, 173. 
prune Myrobolan, 160. 
prunier d'Espagne, 158. 

rouge, 158. 
Prunus Capollin, 268. 

Capuli, 268. 

salicifolia, 268. 
Pseudococcus on guava, 278. 

citri on avocado, 60. 

filamentosus on cherimoya, 175. 

nipcB on avocado, 60. 
Pseudoparlatoria ostriata on papaya, 

239. 
Psidium acre, 281. 

Araca, 281. 

aromaticum, 275. 

Cattleianum, 279. 

chinense, 281. 

Friedrichsthalianum, 283. 

Guajava, 272. 

guianense, 275. 

guineense, 275, 284. 

laurifolium, 283. 

littorale, 281. 

lucidum, 281. 

molle, 284. 

pomiferum, 275. 

pyriferum; 275. 

sinense, 281. 

variabile, 281. 
Psylla cistellata on mango, 131. 
Pucciniopsis caricw, 239. 
Puebla avocado, 21, 68, 77. 
pulasan, 329. 
pulassan, 330. 



INDEX 



471 



Pulvinaria on guava, 278. 

on mango, 132. 

pyriformis on avocado, 60. 
PunicacesB, 375. 
Punica Granatum, 375. 
Pyrie mango, 142. 

Q 

quauhtzapotl, 187. 
Quayle, H. L., 59. 
Queensland fruit-fly on loquat, 264. 

on mango, 130. 
quenette, 333. 

R 

race, definition of horticultural, 65. 
Ragawi pomegranate, 382. 
Rajpuri mango, 142. 
ramboetan, 328. 
rambotang, 328. 
ramboutan, 328. 
rambustan, 328. 
rambutan, 327, 422. 
ramontchi, 439. 
ramphal, 187. 
R'ara date, 221. 
Reasoner Brothers, v. 
Reasoner, E. N., 319, 430. 
Reasoner, P. W., 91, 151, 180, 188, 
274, 288, 333, 336, 342, 346, 
348, 456. 
Red mombin, 157. 
Redondo mango, 136. 
red-spider on avocado, 59. 

on mango, 131. 
Rhamnaceae, 375. 
Rhars date, 221. 
Rheedia brasiliensis, 405. 

edulis, 405. 

macrophylla, 405. 
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, 311. 
Rhus Toxicodendron, 81. 
Rhyncophorus on date, 217. 
Ribera Gomez, D. Emilio, 456. 
Ridley, D., 397. 
rima, 411. 
rimmon, 377. 
Riviere, Ch., 456. 
Rodrigues, J. Barbosa, 289, 404. 
Roeding, George C., 356, 358, 364, 
365, 378, 381, 456. 



Rolfs, P. H., V, 69, 133. 

Rollinia deliciosa, 194. 

orthopetala, 194, 
roma, 377. 
roman, 377. 
Rorer, J. B., 129. 
Rose, J. N., vii, 158. 
rose-apple, 291, 303. 

litchi, 325. 

mango, 137. 
rumman, 377. 
Ryerson, K. A., 298. 

S 

Safari am, 275. 

Safford, W. E., v, vii, 15, 89, 163, 
164, 176, 179, 183, 187, 189, 
192, 430, 431, 456. 
sahagun, 16. 
sahakara, 85. 
Saidi date, 204, 223. 
Saissetia on guava, 278. 

on mango, 132. 

hemispherica on litchi, 324, 

oleoe on avocado, 60. 

on feijoa, 299. 
Salazar, Francisco Cervantes, 15. 
Salimi pomegranate, 382. 
San Chi litchi, 322. 
Sandersha group of mangos, 143. 

mango, 121, 124, 126, 127, 143. 
Sandoricum Koetjape, 426. 

indicum, 426. 
San Jose scale on loquat, 264. 
santol, 426. 
Sapindaceae, 312. 
Sapindus Saponaria, 333. 
sapodilla, 334. 
sapota, 336. 
Sapota Achras, 337. 

zapotilla, 337. 
Sapotacese, 334. 
sapote, 340. 

black, 370. 

green, 343. 

white, 445. 

yellow, 350. 
sapoti, 336. 
sapotUha, 336. 
sapotille, 336. 



472 



INDEX 



saramuya, 180. 

Sauvaigo, Emile, 358, 362, 457. 

scab, avocado, 62. 

scale, black, on avocado, 60. 

Florida wax, on loquat, 264. 

insects on kaki, 365. 

on feijoa, 299. 

San Jose, on loquat, 264. 

wax, on avocado, 60. 

white, on avocado, 60. 
Schimper, A. F. W., 121. 
Schinus molle, 81. 
Schultz, H. F., 170, 174. 
Sebastian avocado, 26. 
seeds, shipment of avocado, 42. 
Seemann, Dr., 161. 
seso vegetal, 332. 
Sextus Papinius, 384. 
sharifa, 180. 

Sharpless avocado, 21, 68, 74. 
shibukaki, 362. 
shi tze, 356. 
Simmonds, Edward, v, 177, 234, 

338, 438. 
Simmonds papaya, 239. 
Singapore mango, 91. 
siniguelas, 158. 
sitaphal, 180. 
Sloane, Sir Hans, 17. 
soapberry, 332. 

Solano avocado (description of), 75. 
Solms-Laubach, Count, 228. 
soncoya, 184, 193. 
Soondershaw mango, 144. 
soursop, 177, 182. 

mountain, 192. 
Souza, Gabriel Soares de, 148. 
Spanish-lime, 333. 

-plum, 158. 

Ruby pomegranate, 383. 
Spinks avocado, 68, 75. 
Spondias, 81. 

cytherea, 155. 

dulcis, 156. 

lutea, 159. 

Mombin, 150, 157. 

purpurea, 158. 

tuherosa, 152. 
star-apple, 344. 
Stenocalyx brasiliensis, 289, 304. 

Michelii, 289. 



Sternochetus gravis on mango, 132. 
mangiferce on mango, 131; 

Stevens, H. E., 61. 

Stizolobium Deeringianum as cover- 
crop for mango, 105. 

Strasburger, E., 109. 

strawberry guava, 279. 

subtropical fruits, definition of, &, 7, 

sugar-apple, 177. 

suirsack, 184. 

Sundersha mango, 144. 

Supsupen mango, 134. 

Surinam-cherry, 289. 

Su Tung-po, 312. 

sweet-cup, 248. 

sweetsop, 180. 

Swingle, Walter T., v, 109. 197, 214, 
315. 

Syzygium Cumini, 305. 
jambolana, 305. 



T 



Tabirzal date, 224. 
Tafilalet date, 200. 
Taft avocado, 45, 52, 68, 75. 
Taft, A. Z., 168. 

C. P., 258, 259, 264, 266. 
tamar-i-Hindi, 434. 
tamarin, 434. 
tamarind, 432. 
tamarindo, 434. 
Tamarindus indica, 432. 
Tamopan kaki, 361, 368. 
Tanaka loquat, 264, 265, 267. 
Tane-nashi kaki, 357, 361, 364, 365, 

367, 368. 
Tavares, J. S., 146, 147, 152, 286, 

289, 290, 292, 300, 301, 302, 

303, 416, 417, 431. 
Taylor avocado, 76. 
Taza loquat, 264. 
Teixeira, Pedro, 202. 
tejocote, 269. 
Tetranychus on papaya, 239. 

mytilaspidis on avocado, 59. 
texaltzapotl, 180. 
texocotl, 270. 

Thalassodes quadraria on litchi, 324. 
Thales loquat, 256, 265, 267. 
thamar, 434. 



INDEX 



473 



theonti, 311. 

Theophrastus, 415. 

Thompson, Alice R., 92, 151, 155, 

160, 169, 180, 230, 290, 306, 

309, 317, 326, 346, 378, 412, 

417, 430, 434, 437. 
Thoory date, 224. 
thrips on avocado, 59. 
on cashew, 152. 
on mango, 131. 
Thuri date, 204, 219, 224. 
ti-es, 348. 
tipolo, 411. 
tHltzapotl, 371. • 
tomate, 453. 
tomato, tree, 452. 
Totapari mango, 92, 144. 
Toumey, J. W., 450. 
Toxotrypana curvicauda, 238. 
Trabut, L., v, 167, 253. 264, 265, 

288, 294. 
Trapp avocado, 21, 24, 25, 26, 35, 

37, 40, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 

63, 68, 70. 
tree-melon, 229. 
tree-tomato, 452. 

Trialeurodes floridensis on avocado, 60. 
Trioza koebeli on avocado, 61. 
Triumph kaki, 357, 365, 367, 369. 
tropical fruits, defiaition of, 6, 7. 
tropics, scarcity of fruits in, 2, 3. 
Trypetidse on cherimoya, 175. 
on mango, 130. 
on sapodUla, 339. 
tsao, 385. 
tsjaka, 417. 

Tsjakapa jackfruit, 419. 
Tsuri date, 224. 

Tsuru kaki, 355, 357, 364, 365, 369. 
Tuberculate cherimoya, 176. 
tuna, 448. 

turpentine mango, 135. 
Turton, Harry, 393. 
Twain, Mark, 161. 
tzapotl, 341, 445. 
tzicozapotl, 336. 



U 



uajuni, 271. 
'ulu, 411. 
'ulu-ma'a, 411. 



umbonate cherimoya, 176. 

umkokolo, 441. 

unnab, 385. 

Urbina, Manuel, 371. 

uto, 411. 

uto-sore, 411. 

uvalha, 309. 



Valle, P. della, 87. 
Van Hermann, H. A., v, 116. 
Varaka jackfruit, 419. 
Vasconcellos, Simam de, 147. 
Vega, Garcilasso de la, 16. 
Vela jackfruit, 419. 

velvet bean as cover-crop for avocado, 
33. 

for mango, 105. 
vetch, as cover-crop for avocado, 33. 
vi, 156. 

Vicia atropurpurea, 33. 
Victor loquat, 263, 265, 267. 
Vienna rules of nomenclature, 8. 
Vigna Catjang as cover-crop for 

mango, 105. 
Vinson, A. E., 197. 
Yirachola isocrates on loquat, 264. 

on pomegranate, 382. 

livia on pomegranate, 382. 
Vitellaria mammosa, 341. 
Viviand-Morel, M., 299. 

W 

Wahi date, 224. 

Waldin avocado, 35, 71. 

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 422. 

Waller, Edmund, 226. 

Waraka jackfruit, 419. 

water-lemon, 248. 

Watt, Rev. D. G., 91. 

Watt, George, 93, 477. 

Webber, H. J., 25, 65, 109, 277. 

weevil, avocado, 60. 

Wehmer, Carl, 337, 394. 

Werckle, Carlos, 170. 

Wester, P. J., v, 91, 105, 134, 152, 
156, 159, 171, 172, 173, 176, 
181, 186, 188, 192, 232, 233, 
277, 306, 373,. 399, 413, 420, 



474 



INDEX 



421, 425, 426, 427, 428, 431, 
432, 435, 443, 444, 455, 457. 

West Indian mango, 135. 
race of avocados, 69. 

Whedon, J. T., 58. 

wi, 156. 

Wickson, Edward J., 457. 

Wilcox, E. v., 457. 

wild cherimoya, 192. 

Wilder, Gerrit P., 336, 393, 457. 

Willis, J. C, 96. 

Wonderful pomegranate, 383. 

Woodrow, G. Marshall, 91, 101, 103, 
104, 105, 112, 124, 181, 457. 

Wright, W. H., 395. 

Wu Ti, 305. 



xalxocotl, 274. 
Ximenez, Francisco, 16. 
xocotl, 158. 



yd, 336. 
yambo, 305. 
yds, 11. 



yash-tul, 344. 

Yeddo-ichi kaki, 363, 365, 367, 369. 

Yemon kaki, 355, 364, 365, 367, 370. 

yongt'o, 430. 

Yu jujube, 389. 

Yule, Sir Henry, 457. 



Zadie date, 224. 

Zahidi date, 215, 219, 224 

zapote agrio, 184. 

amarillo, 351. 

bianco, 446. 

borracho, 351. 

negro, 372. 

prieto, 372. 
zapotillo, 336. 
Zehedi date, 224. 
Zengi kaki, 357, 363, 365, 370. 
Zignoella garcinece on mangosteen, 

401. 
Zizyphus, 384. 

Jujuba, 384. 

mauritiana, 384. 

sativa, 384. 

vulgaris, 384. 



Printed in the United States of America. 



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